Name

The name "Confucius" is a Latinization of the Mandarin Chinese title Kǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子), meaning "Master Kong", and was coined in the late 16th century by the early Jesuit missionaries to China. Confucius's family name (xìng: 姓) was and his given name (míng:名) was . His "courtesy name", a capping (guan: 冠) given at his coming of age ceremony, and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was , the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family.

Life

Early life

It is thought that Confucius was born on September 28, , in Zou (邹, in modern Shandong province). The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu, who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu.

Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai (颜徵在) in poverty. His mother would later die at less than 40 years of age. At age 19 he married Qiguan (亓官), and a year later the couple had their first child, their son Kong Li (孔鲤). Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child.

Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts.

Confucius was born into the class of shi (士), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial. When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition.

Political career

In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of , Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of , the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year, Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime.

Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In , Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the Qi state. The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in .

Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao (also known as Gongshan Buniu), a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel (1949) states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore the power of the duke. However, Dubs (1946) is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee.

During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep the duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.

The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi (as it could have harbored such rebels) or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs (1949) suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character.

When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. The Zuozhuan recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to the Qi state and cause the destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls.

Later in , Duke Ding personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in the Zuozhuan and Shiji, Confucius departed his homeland in after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.

Exile

The Shiji stated that the neighboring Qi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state.

After Confucius's resignation, he began a long journey or set of journeys around the principality states of north-east and central China including Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.

Return home

According to the Zuozhuan, Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu. The Analects depict him spending his last years teaching 72 or 77 disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the Five Classics.

During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.

Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72. He died from natural causes. Confucius was buried in Kong Lin cemetery which lies in the historical part of Qufu in the Shandong Province. The original tomb erected there in memory of Confucius on the bank of the Sishui River had the shape of an axe. In addition, it has a raised brick platform at the front of the memorial for offerings such as sandalwood incense and fruit.

Philosophy

Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, many argue that its values are secular and that it is, therefore, less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents argue, however, that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious. Confucianism discusses elements of the afterlife and views concerning Heaven, but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of souls.

In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study (学) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that their deep thought and thorough study would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events (as recorded in the Annals) or the past expressions of commoners' feelings and noblemen's reflections (as in the poems of the Book of Odes).

Ethics

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology. His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

::厩焚。子退朝，曰：伤人乎？不问马。| size = 120%

::When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses.

:::::::Analects X.11 (tr. Waley), 10–13 (tr. Legge), or X-17 (tr. Lau)

By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrates that the sage values human beings over property; readers are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's and to pursue self-improvement if it would not have. Confucius serves not as an all-powerful deity or a universally true set of abstract principles, but rather the ultimate model for others. For these reasons, according to many commentators, Confucius's teachings may be considered a Chinese example of humanism.

One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule, sometimes called the "Silver Rule" owing to its negative form:

::己所不欲，勿施于人。| size = 120%

::"What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others."

::子贡问曰：有一言而可以终身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施于人。| size = 120%

::Zi Gong disciple asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself."

:::::::Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton

Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness.

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in lǐ (礼) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. It was believed by some that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.

In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time, balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages cultivates in people virtues that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (义), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the right thing for the right reason.

Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁).Rén consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence and kindness. Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount—not too much and not too little.

Politics

Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and people's natural morality, and not by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Translated by James Legge) in the Great Learning (大学). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.

Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.

Although Confucius did not mention in the concept of "democracy", which is itself an Athenian concept unknown in ancient China,it could be interpreted by Confucius's principles--the ideal world as Confucius thought Datong(大同).

::大道之行也，天下为公。选贤与能，讲信修睦。故人不独亲其亲，不独子其子。使老有所终，壮有所用，幼有所长，矜〔鳏〕、 寡、孤、独、废疾者皆有所养。男有分，女有归。货恶其弃于地也，不必藏于己；力恶其不出于身也，不必为己。是故谋闭而不兴，盗窃乱贼而不作，故外户而不闭。是谓大同。| size = 120%

::In the era when the Dai Dao (大道) was implemented. The world was in fair and everyone elected moral and capable people as their leaders. They emphasized credibility and got along with each other in harmony. Therefore, people not only regard their relatives as relatives(but also all people) , also not only their sons and daughters as children, so that the elderly can spend their twilight years in peace, the ability of all mature people can be exerted, the young people can grow up Health. For People who are widows, loneliness, disability and sick can be taken care of by society. All men have professions, and women all marry at the right time to the right person. For property, people just don't want it to be thrown on the ground in vain, and it doesn't necessarily have to be hidden in their own homes; for work, people are afraid that the things are not done by themselves, but not only gain for themselves. Therefore, there is no market for intrigue matters, and the phenomenon of openly robbing and secretly injuring people has disappeared. Therefore, the door only needs to be brought on from the outside and does not need to be locked. This is called Datong.

While he supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.

Music and Poetry

Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order. The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth." Thus the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper.

The Confucian approach to music was heavily inspired by the Shijing and the Classic of Music, which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the Han Dynasty. The Shijing serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school. In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of the art in the development of society: "The Master said, 『My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry?

『The Odes serve to stimulate the mind.

『They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation.

『They teach the art of sociability.

『They show how to regulate feelings of resentment.

『From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one』s father, and the remoter one of serving one』s prince.

『From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants.』"

Legacy

Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.

Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius (孟子) and Xun Zi (荀子) both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xun Zi underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.

This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Si, Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty, convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou Dynasty before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Si had many Confucian scholars killed and their books burned—considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship.

Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Wudi, the works of Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi, whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming Dynasty and even the Yuan Dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them.

During the Song dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century.

The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty. The first known effort was by Michele Ruggieri, who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in Salerno. Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits—Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet, and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687. François Noël, after failing to persuade ClementXI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius did not constitute idolatry, completed the Confucian canon at Prague in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first translation of the collected works of Mencius. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization.

In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist, but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Chinese Communist Party. This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the Qing Dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th century.

Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the Chinese cultural sphere, such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year.

Among Tibetans, Confucius is often worshipped as a holy king and master of magic, divination and astrology. Tibetan Buddhists see him as learning divination from the Buddha Manjushri (and that knowledge subsequently reaching Tibet through Princess Wencheng), while Bon practitioners see him as being a reincarnation of Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, the legendary founder of Bon.

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as were Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages.

In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker.

Disciples

Confucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000 students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding. His disciples and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential intellectual force in the Warring States period. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian dedicated a chapter in his Records of the Grand Historian to the biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in their time and afterward. Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his collective biography, while Kongzi Jiayu, another early source, records 76, not completely overlapping. The two sources together yield the names of 96 disciples. 22 of them are mentioned in the Analects, while the Mencius records 24.

Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a bundle of dried meat from any prospective student. According to his disciple Zigong, his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn anybody away. Most of them came from Lu, Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over China, with six from the state of Wey (such as Zigong), three from Qin, two each from Chen and Qi, and one each from Cai, Chu, and Song. Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and Gongye Chang. His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation.

Confucius's favorite disciple was Yan Hui, most probably one of the most impoverished of them all. Sima Niu, in contrast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state. Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became well-learned in the principles and methods of government. He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual. Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence. Even though Confucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable. In fact, the disciple Zilu even died defending his ruler in Wey.

Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup, which narrowly failed. As a likely consequence, it was after this that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to government positions. A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which were arranged by Confucius. By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu state over the ruling ducal house. Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment. Confucius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family.

Visual portraits

No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han Dynasty that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher. The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of the Han dynasty ruler Marquis of Haihun (died ). The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror.

In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty, it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong. In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.

The South Wall Frieze in the courtroom of the Supreme Court of the United States depicts Confucius as a teacher of harmony, learning, and virtue.

Fictional portrayals

There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: Confucius (1940) starring Tang Huaiqiu, and Confucius (2010) starring Chow Yun-fat.

In music, Tori Amos imagines Confucius as working on a crossword puzzle in her 1992 song "Happy Phantom."

Memorials

Soon after Confucius's death, Qufu, his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. The Han dynasty Records of the Grand Historian records that it had already become a place of pilgrimage for ministers. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In Sinic cultures, there are many temples where representations of the Buddha, Laozi, and Confucius are found together. There are also many temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucian ceremonies.

Followers of Confucianism have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius (祭孔) every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li (周礼) as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius's birth. In the 20th century, this tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance.

In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius (祭孔) is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day or Christmas Day do in the Western world.

In South Korea, a grand-scale memorial ceremony called Seokjeon Daeje is held twice a year on Confucius's birthday and the anniversary of his death, at Confucian academies across the country and Sungkyunkwan in Seoul.

Descendants

Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis 35 times since Gaozu of the Han dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke 42 times from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.

During the Southern Song dynasty, the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou in Zhejiang, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000. The Hanlin Academy rank of Wujing boshi 五经博士 was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng. The leader of the southern branch is 孔祥楷 Kong Xiangkai.

In 1351, during the reign of Emperor Toghon Temür of the Yuan dynasty, 53rd-generation descendant Kong Huan (孔浣)'s 2nd son Kong Shao (孔昭) moved from China to Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, and was received courteously by Princess Noguk (the Mongolian-born wife of the future king Gongmin). After being naturalized as a Korean citizen, he changed the hanja of his name from "昭" to "绍" (both pronounced so in Korean), married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo, 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan, whose ancestral seat was located in Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province.

The clan then received an aristocratic rank during the succeeding Joseon Dynasty. In 1794, during the reign of King Jeongjo, the clan then changed its name to Gokbu Gong clan in honor of Confucius's birthplace Qufu.Famous descendants include actors such as Gong Yoo (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) & Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); and artists such as male idol group B1A4 member Gongchan (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriter Minzy (real name Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great-aunt traditional folk dancer Gong Ok-jin (공옥진).

Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist Government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, had died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman. Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today.

A descendant of Confucius, H. H. Kung was the Premier of the Republic of China. One of his sons, Kong Lingjie 孔令杰 married Debra Paget who gave birth to Gregory Kung (孔德基).

Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation, has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC), he has two million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated three million in all. Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China. In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today. One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s and eventually settled in Taiwan. There are also branches of the Kong family who have converted to Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan in Gansu province in the 1800s, and in 1715 in Xuanwei in Yunnan province. Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga, a Muslim woman, and Kong Yanrong, 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480 and are found among the Hui and Dongxiang peoples. The new genealogy includes the Muslims. Kong Dejun is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius.

Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members of the collateral branches in mainland China. Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time. The aim of the genetic test was the help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records to prove their descent. However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing. Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance," he said. "It's not just a scientific question." The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree. The main branch of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all.

In 2013 a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the same Y chromosome as reported by Fudan University.

The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the CGCC. It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on September 24, 2009. Women are now included for the first time.

名号与称呼

孔子在世时被誉为「天纵之圣」、「天之木铎」，由董仲舒倡议，汉武帝施行「独尊儒术」政策，后世统治者或孔教信徒陆续尊称孔子为圣人、文圣、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣先师、万世师表。道教称号：太极上真九疑主宰文昌皇人玄圣道君、东海广桑山真君、阐猷大帝、兴儒盛世天尊。

而一般对孔子的惯用敬称为孔夫子，英语等西方语言中的Confucius则是「孔夫子」（Con-Fu-Ci）的拉丁语化。

生平经历

家系与出生

孔子为鲁国人，远祖是殷商王室，武王克殷后，他的祖先分封到宋国。

其十六世祖是殷商帝乙，十五世祖为宋国第二任国君宋公仲，十二世祖是宋前闵公，十一世祖弗父何让位给弟宋厉公，拜为宋国上卿。七世祖孔父嘉是宋国大夫，曾为大司马，在宫廷内乱中被杀，孔父嘉子木金父避灾逃到鲁国的邹邑定居，作鲁国的大夫。

孔子的父亲叔梁纥居于鲁昌平乡邹邑，为邹邑大夫。叔梁纥与原配施氏连出九个女儿，他望子心切，于是续娶一妾，得一子名孟皮，却脚有残疾。，由于婚姻不合礼制，被史书称为野合，约在鲁襄公廿二年（公元前551年）生下孔丘。颜徵在曾私下至尼丘山祭祀尼丘山神以求子，故取名丘，字仲尼。

仪容

• 孔子生而首上圩顶，而孔子，名「丘」，即是来源于此的说法。而唐朝司马贞认为：「圩言乌。顶音鼎。圩顶言顶上窳也，故孔子顶如反宇。反宇者，若屋宇之反，中低而四傍高也。」即孔子头顶中部有凹陷。清朝陈立相信此说，「是孔子首形象邱，四方高，中下，故名丘焉。」史学家钱穆在《孔子传略》中也持此说。

• 孔子身高九尺六寸（据中国度量衡条，西周一尺约19.1公分，八寸为一尺，则孔子身高约186公分；战国时期为一尺23.1公分，十寸为一尺，则孔子身高为221.76公分。以鲁尺当遵循周礼而言，则《孔子世家》所载之九尺六寸，当为186公分。）被后世称为「长人」，这是孔子父亲的遗传。据《左传·襄公十年》曾记载：孟献子曾称赞孔子父亲叔梁纥能力举城门，说：「这就是《诗经》所说的『像老虎一样有力气』的人。」

早年教育

• 孔子早年生活极为艰辛，他说：「吾少也贱，故多能鄙事。」

• 孔子三岁时，叔梁纥去世，葬于鲁国东部的防山，孔母未将墓的所在地告诉孔子。颜氏移居曲阜阙里，将其抚养成人。

• 幼年的孔子常将祭祀用的礼器（俎豆）摆设起来，练习行礼演礼，作为一种游戏。

• 孔子的母亲在他17岁时去世，孔子希望将父母合葬。为了打听父亲葬处，他将母亲棺殡停于路口（五父之衢），向路人打听。后孔母的邻居曼父之母，告诉孔子叔梁纥的墓处，孔子这才将父母合葬于防山。第二年，孔子在为母亲守丧时，季孙氏宴请士一级的人（飨士）。孔子前往，不想却被季孙氏家臣阳虎训斥并拒绝。但后世学者多怀疑此事有伪。

• 19岁时孔子为鲁国贵族季孙氏做文书、委吏和乘田等小吏，管理仓储和畜牧。娶宋人亓官氏为妻，第二年亓官氏生子。鲁昭公派人送鲤鱼表示祝贺，该子便名为孔鲤，字伯鱼。孔鲤先孔子而死，有遗腹子孔伋，字子思。

• 23岁时孔子开始在乡间收徒讲学，学生有颜由（颜回之父）、曾点（曾参之父）、冉耕等。

• 鲁昭公十七年，郯国国君郯子访鲁。郯子博学多才，27岁的孔子慕名拜见。韩愈《师说》有语：「孔子师郯子。」孔子先后「问礼于老聃，学鼓琴于师襄子，访乐于苌弘。」

• 大约三十岁左右，最初的一些弟子来到孔子身边。此后，孔子一直从事教育事业，他广收门徒，相传弟子三千，贤人七十二。他首倡有教无类及因材施教，成为当时学术下移、私人讲学的先驱和代表，故后人尊为「万世师表」及「至圣先师」。

适齐

三十五岁时，鲁昭公被鲁国掌权的三桓季孙氏、叔孙氏、孟孙氏击败，逃到齐国，孔子便离开鲁国到齐国，为高昭子家臣。孔子曾与齐太师谈说音乐，闻习韶乐之盛美，三月不知肉味。齐景公问政于孔子，孔子说：「君君，臣臣，父父，子子。」齐景公说：「善哉！信如君不君，臣不臣，父不父，子不子。虽有粟，吾得而食诸？」他日又问政于孔子，孔子说：「政在节财。」景公想封孔子为尼溪田大夫，遭齐相国晏婴进言劝阻，晏婴认为孔子会干扰齐国的文化。后来得知齐大夫想害孔子，景公没有办法，只好辞退孔子，孔子则重回鲁国，聚徒讲学。

初仕鲁国

鲁定公九年，51岁的孔子仕鲁，初为中都宰（中都为今山东汶上县），一年后做季孙氏司空，再升为鲁国大司寇，期间行摄相事。

鲁定公十年，鲁定公与齐景公会于夹谷，孔子成功说服齐归还侵占鲁的汶阳等地。

鲁定公十三年，孔子为重新确立鲁公室的权威，策划实施「隳三都」的政治军事行动，希望能够削减三桓的实力，于是先堕叔孙氏之郈，再堕季孙氏之费，后没能围攻孟孙氏郕邑，功败垂成。

鲁定公十四年，孔子诛杀鲁大夫乱政者少正卯；但有看法认为少正卯事件是受到法家思想影响的后世学者所杜撰。

由于孔子治下鲁国颇有起色，引起齐人警惧，齐大夫黎锄设计，向鲁赠送女乐文马使鲁定公不问朝政，并让孔子与鲁定公、季桓子等人之间在道德与政策上的分歧难以弥合，最终孔子去鲁仕衞。

周游列国

离开鲁国以后，孔子率众弟子周游列国，辗转于衞、曹、宋、郑、陈、蔡、叶、楚等地，然而均未获重用。其间，在匡、宋、蒲等地，孔子一行多次被困遇险。

留衞期间

孔子到了衞国，在前往陈地时，途经匡城，颜刻举策指著郭外缺口说：「昔吾入此，由彼缺也。」因孔子身材高大，被匡人误以为是鲁国的阳虎，而遭围捕。子路感到愤怒，夺戟准备交战，但被孔子阻止。过程中孔子曾与颜回失散，一度以为颜回已死。

衞灵公提供孔子与仕鲁时同等的俸禄。居住一段时间后，遭人诬谄而离开。

孔子在蒲城滞留几个月后返回衞国。拜见衞灵公夫人南子时，孔子朝著北面，低头俯地，不正视；夫人南子亦于帷幕中再拜孔子。子路得知后，为此事甚感不满，表面上不说，但孔子心里明白，孔子便对著子路向天发誓说：「我如果不对的话，就让老天厌弃我吧！」数月后，衞灵公与夫人南子同车，孔子为次，其馀官员在后，招摇游市而过。孔子对此事引以为耻，颜刻问有何耻辱，孔子感叹：「我还从未遇见过好德胜过好色的人啊！」便离开衞国。

过宋之危

孔子到了宋国以后，在大树下和弟子习礼。宋司马桓魋欲杀孔子，将大树拔除。弟子打算尽速离去，孔子说：「天生德于予，桓魋其如予何？」

相失于郑

孔子在郑国时，与弟子失散，孔子独自站立在郭东门。有人告知子贡，东门有人仪表像丧家之犬。弟子终把孔子寻回，并将此话告诉孔子，孔子欣然笑曰：「形状，末也。而谓似丧家之狗，然哉！然哉！」

受困陈蔡

周敬王三十一年（鲁哀公六年，前489年）壬子，吴伐陈、楚伐蔡之际，楚昭王派人聘请孔子，孔子随即出发。陈、蔡大夫惧怕孔子为楚国所用，便将孔子围困在陈、蔡野外，孔子等人不得行，绝粮七日，许多弟子病倒不起。弟子中多有不快者，孔子仍旧讲诵不绝。后来派子贡至楚，楚昭王兴师迎接孔子。孔子在楚国期间，楚昭王一度想封给孔子七百里土地，令尹子西以孔子手下人才济济，如果获得封地将来会威胁楚国统治为由劝阻了昭王。

晚年

颠沛流离凡十四年，前484年，年近七十岁的孔子被季康子派人迎回鲁国尊为国老，但未受鲁哀公的任用，这段期间孔子专注于教育和古籍整理。前483年，独子孔鲤先孔子而死。前481年，颜回先他而去世。孔子有所感慨：「昔从我于陈蔡者，皆不及门也。」哀公十四年夏，齐国陈恒弑其君，孔子斋戒沐浴三天，向哀公恳请伐齐，哀公让他「告季孙」，后孔子向季康子请求出兵，结果遭到拒绝。公元前479年3月9日（鲁哀公十六年四月己丑日，儒略历3月9日，格里历3月4日，夏历二月十一），孔子逝世，享寿七十一岁，被葬于曲阜城北的泗水岸边。众弟子为其服丧3年，子贡为孔子守坟6年。

回首一生，孔子说：「吾十有五而志于学，三十而立，四十而不惑，五十而知天命，六十而耳顺，七十而从心所欲，不逾矩。」

理念

思想方面

「仁」的人生哲学

孔子会针对不同的弟子与不同的时机来讲述「仁」，因材施教。大致来说，孔子的「仁」就是曾子所说的「忠恕」二字而已。孔子又说：「刚毅、木讷，近仁」、「巧言令色，鲜矣仁」在告诉我们「仁道」就是真诚踏实，切忌浮夸不实而违逆正道。

• 子贡有一次问孔子：「如有博施于民，而能济众，何如？可谓仁乎？」孔子说：「何事于仁，必也圣乎！尧舜其犹病诸！夫仁者，己欲立而立人，己欲达而达人。能近取譬，可谓仁之方也已。」孔子告诉子贡行仁不必好高骛远，从自身做起，再推己及人。

• 颛孙师志向太高，孔子认为他的个性可能流于偏激，所以孔子告诉颛孙师行仁的方法有五道：「恭、宽、信、敏、惠。恭则不侮，宽则得众，信则人任焉，敏则有功，惠则足以使人。」孔子告诉颛孙师行仁要从「严以律己，宽以待人」著手。对于自己的修养要严谨，对待别人则是恭敬宽容，又能厚待别人，如此才是行仁的方法。

• 颜渊是孔门弟子中的模范生，孔子曾称赞他「其心三月不违仁」。孔子只希望他能用「礼」来进一步约束自己就可以了。《论语·颜渊》一章：「颜渊问仁。子曰：『克己复礼为仁。一日克己复礼，天下归仁焉。为仁由己，而由人乎哉？』颜渊曰：『请问其目。』子曰：『非礼勿视，非礼勿听，非礼勿言，非礼勿动。』颜渊曰：『回虽不敏，请事斯语矣。』」

• 冉雍品德优良，又有政治才干，曾任季氏宰。当他问仁时，孔子说：「出门如见大宾，使民如承大祭。己所不欲，勿施于人。在邦无怨，在家无怨。」孔子的回答比较偏向政治层面。孔子告诉冉雍行仁的方法就是待人恭敬，使民宽爱，如此一来，大众对你都没有怨恨，就是行仁政。

• 司马牛言多而躁。当他问起孔子什么是仁，孔子告诉他「仁者其言也訒」，揭示慎言的重要。

• 当子贡问仁时，孔子用比喻的手法来告诉他「以友辅仁」的重要：「工欲善其事，必先利其器。居是邦也，事其大夫之贤者，友其士之仁者。」

• 孔子又谆谆告诫我们：「当仁，不让于师」、「无求生以害仁，有杀身以成仁」以及「君子去仁，恶乎成名？君子无终食之间违仁，造次必于是，颠沛必于是」。

部分思想的弊端

孔子思想的核心是仁和礼，仁者爱人，己所不欲，勿施于人，但是这种「仁」，是有等级的。礼指的是周礼，这种礼是分为天子、公、侯、伯、子、男等不同等级的人使用的物品，行礼，音乐皆有各自使用的方法不能逾越。

孔子认为贵贱有序，亲疏有别。君君臣臣、父父子子的关系是恒定的，不可打破。

「礼」的社会秩序

• 礼，就是「节制」，宋明儒者也解作「理」。《司马迁·太史公自序》有：「礼以节人，乐以发和。」我们来看孔子对于礼的阐释：

　• 《论语·泰伯》：「子曰：『恭而无礼则劳，慎而无礼则葸，勇而无礼则乱，直而无礼则绞。』」

• 礼，也是「真情」，而且在上位者必须作为人民的表率。所以孔子接著说：

　• 『君子笃于亲，则民兴于仁；故旧不遗，则民不偷。』

• 礼，不是浪费铺张，而是真情流露；宁愿节俭简陋，也不奢侈浮夸：

　• 《论语·八佾》：「林放问礼之本。子曰:『大哉问！礼，与其奢也，宁俭；丧，与其易也，宁戚。』」

　• 《论语·阳货》：「子曰：『礼云礼云，玉帛云乎哉？乐云乐云，钟鼓云乎哉？』」

• 礼，是对天地万物的尊重。藉由对礼法的好问，来表达自己对于天地的敬意：

　• 《论语·八佾》：「子入太庙，每事问。或曰:『孰谓鄹人之子知礼乎？入太庙，每事问。』子闻之，曰：『是礼也。』」

君子与小人

君子与小人虽然是以身份地位区分开来的，但孔子不认为这是唯一的差别，更重要的在于修养和境界。对此孔子有很多说明，如他说：「君子中庸，小人反中庸。」中庸（「不偏不倚，无过不及」），是修养的最高境界，同时也是方法，有著丰富而精微的内涵，并提出（「君子正其衣冠，尊其瞻视，俨然人望而畏之，斯不亦威而不猛乎」）的说法，表示端正服饰是君子的重要大事。近百年来，不少人反感于中庸，大概是将它误解为同流合污、媚世自是、毫无原则的伪君子行径，其实这样的乡愿也正是孔子所深恶痛绝的，他说：「乡愿，德之贼也。」他认为，如果不能达到中庸，狂狷是次好的境界，毕竟「狂者进取，狷者有所不为」。

孔子又说：

• 「君子喻于义，小人喻于利。」

• 「君子博学于文，约之以礼，亦可以弗畔矣夫！」

• 「质胜文则野，文胜质则史，文质彬彬，然后君子。」

• 「君子坦荡荡，小人长戚戚。」

• 「君子食无求饱，居无求安，敏于事而慎于言，就有道而正焉，可谓好学也已。」

• 「君子道者三：仁者不忧，知者不惑，勇者不惧。」

• 「君子不以言举人，不以人废言。」

• 「君子泰而不骄，小人骄而不泰。」

• 「君子固穷，小人穷斯滥矣。」

• 「君子周而不比，小人比而不周。」

• 「君子和而不同，小人同而不和。」

• 「君君臣臣父父子子。」

教育方面

孔子主张育德为先，后以全面发展「志于道，据于德，依于仁，游于艺。」，「行有馀力，则以学文。」

• 有教无类：人都有受教育的权利

• 因材施教：了解学生根据不同的人与个性，进行洽如其分的教导「不愤不启 不悱不发。举一隅不以三隅反 则不复也。」

• 实事求事：「知之为知之，不知为不知，是知也。」

• 知行合一：「学而不思则罔，思而不学则殆。」

• 学以致用：「知百工居肆，以成其事，君子学以致其道。」

哲学方面

孔子提倡中庸之道，中庸就是以中为用的意思，意义就是折中、平衡、不偏不倚，力戒片面，「乐而不淫，哀而不伤」「、「温而厉， 威而不猛」。

权变：孔子强调执中但并不执泥强调不要顽固可以变通，「可与立，未可与权」「不得中行而与之，必也狂狷乎！狂者进取，狷者有所不为也。」

政治方面

治理：孔子怀念周公，欲从周礼，希望「齐一变至于鲁，鲁一变至于道。」主张德治与礼治，用礼乐教化治理国家，政令刑罚居次。遵循尧舜之道，效法周文王、周武王之制。

经济：孔子维护西周的井田制反对季康子的以田赋，展现了保守的立场。

鬼神观

宿命论者：「获罪于天，无所祷也。」字面意思是天是不可违抗的，得罪上天就无可挽回了。

天命观：孔子提出君子要「知天命」，「不知天命无以为君子」知天命是儒家思想特点。

有神论者:「天何言哉？四时行焉，百物生焉，天何言哉？」「敬鬼神而远之」「未能事人，焉能事鬼？」信鬼神才讨论鬼神，孔子对鬼神的态度是肯定的，但是孔子注重现实把鬼神的事放在第二位。

「子不语怪力乱神。」「敬鬼神而远之。」又衍伸出两种说法。

无神论：近代儒学研究者所提出的看法。

不可知论：由于孟子之后的儒家学派倾向理性主义的结果，在解释孔子思想时，著重于不可知论并摒弃掉「天」的人格化。

主要成就

孔子所处的春秋时代，西周社会以血缘氏族（民族）为基础的政治制度崩溃瓦解，而基于文化认同的华夏天下观开始成形。一些人开始思考天道、人生和世界秩序等方面的问题，原先由贵族所垄断的文化教育也正逐渐流入民间。孔子正是这时代精神的代表人物之一，遂开战国诸子百家之先河。《易传》、《春秋》、《孝经》、《论语》是了解其本人思想的主要著作。

孔子开创了易学，并由他率先提出了「性善论」（「一阴一阳之谓道，继之者善也，成之者性也」）作为其「仁学」的哲学基础，他辩论仁义，「分阴分阳，迭用柔刚」，「曰仁曰义」，又论及六画，「六位而成章（彰）」。

为政之道

正名是孔子最重要的政治主张。可以从下面这个故事来彻底了解孔子「正名」的涵义:

当孔子三度至卫时，卫国发生了一件大事。原来先前卫灵公宠爱夫人南子，想要把公位传给南子的庶子。于是，嫡长子蒯聩便企图暗杀南子以保公位。不幸谋杀计画未成，而卫灵公得知此一消息之后勃然大怒，欲弑子蒯聩。蒯聩逃亡至晋，卫灵公便与晋国宣战。就在卫灵公想要请教孔子有关兵阵之事时，孔子说:「俎豆之事，则尝学之。军旅之事，未之学也。」隔天孔子便感慨万千地离开卫国。现在灵公过世，蒯聩又不在国内，蒯聩子辄便继承公位，是为卫出公。但是，就在此时，蒯聩亦在晋军护送下回到卫国，父子便为了争夺公位而反目成仇。孔子看在眼里十分伤心。有一天，子路问孔子：「卫君待子而为政，子将奚先?」孔子便对子路不厌其烦地说：「名不正则言不顺，言不顺则事不成，事不成则礼乐不兴，礼乐不兴则刑罚不中，刑罚不中则民无所措手足。」

正名的目的在于维系一个秩序良好的社会，使人们有一定的规范遵循，而不致生活在一种不可预期的状态之中。很多人认为孔子希望能够恢复西周的礼乐，也有一些人认为他只是以复古的名义鼓吹一种新的世界秩序。

立信，对于孔子而言，不仅是个人的美德，而且是一个基本的政治原则。子贡请教为政的要点，孔子说：「足食，足兵，民信之矣。」而其中最重要的是第三点，他说：「自古皆有死，民无信不立。」

德治，孔子认为：「道之以政，齐之以刑，民免而无耻。道之以德，齐之以礼，有耻且格。」孔子曾任掌刑罚的大司寇，他怎会不知道严刑峻罚立竿见影的效果呢?但是，孔子深深感受到「民免而无耻」的社会隐忧，所以才提倡用道德伦理来教化人民，彻底洗涤人心，激发人的善性，才是经世济民的正途。

教育理念与教学实况

孔子教学的项目有四：文、行、忠、信。文，指诗书礼乐等古代文献；行，是德行；忠，意指尽心尽力；信，即为诚实无欺。孔子对于古代文献十分重视，尤其是诗、礼、乐。他认为这三项学问对于人的性情养成非常重要。《论语·泰伯》：子曰：「兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。」诗，可以使人兴起好善恶恶之心；礼，使人进退得宜，进而可以立身于世；乐，可以使人养成完美的人格。顺道一提，孔子曾经这样称赞诗经：「小子，何莫学夫诗！诗，可以兴，可以观，可以群，可以怨。迩之事父，远之事君，多识于鸟兽草木之名。」

学不厌、教不倦，使孔子成为中国的「大成至圣先师」。他主张「有教无类」，学生多至三千人，从《论语》书上看来，他教导学生的只是人生日常所必经问题的解答，以及人与人相处所必备条件的阐明。其道合理而平凡，易知易行；然而用之于身则身修，用之于家则家齐，用之于国则国治，用之于天下则天下平。

三千弟子和七十二位精通六艺的弟子

据《史记》记载，孔子有弟子三千，其中精通六艺者七十二人，称「七十二贤人」。

孔子有十位杰出弟子，号称孔门十哲：

• 在德行方面出众的有：颜回（颜渊）、闵损（闵子骞）、冉耕（伯牛）、冉雍（仲弓）。

• 在言语方面出众的有：宰予（宰我）、端木赐（子贡）。

• 在文学方面出众的有：言偃（子游）、卜商（子夏）。

• 在政事方面出众的有：冉求（冉有）、仲由（子路）。

十哲以外，在文学方面出众的有颛孙师（子张）、曾参（子舆）、澹台灭明（子羽）、原宪（子思）、公冶长（子长）、樊须（樊迟）、有若（子有）、公西赤（子华）。

孔子死后，「七十子之徒散游诸侯，大者为师傅卿相，小者友教士大夫。」这样就在政治上打破了贵族垄断的世卿世禄制，为专制君主自由任免布衣卿相的官僚体制创造了条件。

整理编修古籍

• 相传孔子作史书《春秋》（《孟子·滕文公下》：「孔子作春秋而乱臣贼子惧」），微言大义，寄托政治理想。（现在一般认为《春秋》是孔子编辑鲁国原始史料后寄托其政治理想之作，也有少数学者认为《春秋》非孔子所编撰。）《春秋》一书所载年代（前722年到前481年）就称为春秋时代。

• 孔子门人及其再传弟子将其学说结辑成《论语》，是为研究孔子思想的主要文献。汉代定型的《礼记》一书中也曾记述孔子的思想（如其中的《大学》 及《中庸》等），又有记录孔门思想的《孔子家语》一书，传统上被认为多伪撰，但近年渐得学界重视。

• 南宋时，朱熹将《论语》以及《礼记》中的《大学》、《中庸》两篇与反映亚圣孟子思想的《孟子》一书合在一起撰写了《四书集注》，是谓四书。

• 四书与《诗》（诗经）、《书》（尚书）、《礼》（礼记）、《易》（易经）、《春秋》五部经典合称「四书五经」，乃儒家学说之核心经典。佚失的《乐经》有关「儒家论乐的一套基本观点」已经面世。郭店简原名叫《性自命出》的篇章前半部是专门论乐的。

• 孔子删诗书，定礼乐，赞周易，作春秋。

家族

孔子身后，七世单传，至第九代才有孔鲋、孔腾、孔树兄弟三人。孔子后裔秉承祖先「诗礼传家」之祖训，在文学、经学等方面都有较大成就，在明清时期更因为得到皇帝扶持，成为「天下第一家」。

影响

形象

西汉公羊学相信孔子受天命而为王，是一个没有王位的王，即「素王」，他「为汉制法」，所作的《春秋》代表了一王之法。汉代纬书中，孔子被神化为神，如春秋纬《演孔图》说孔子是「黑帝」的儿子。

孔子与中华文化

孔子虽为诸子之一，但「祖述尧舜，宪章文武」，本是中华文化的集大成者。秦朝以法家学说治天下，西汉武帝前推行黄老之术而以「无为」治国。汉武帝时董仲舒提出「罢黩百家，表章六经」，确立巩固了孔子学说在中华文化中的主轴地位，恢复六经的正统地位，孔子也成为中华文化的代表人物。邵雍指出，「孔子赞《易》自羲、轩而下，序《书》自尧、舜而下，删《诗》自文、武而下，修《春秋》自桓、文而下。自羲、轩而下，祖三皇也；自尧、舜而下，宗五帝也；自文、武而下，子三王也。自桓、文而下，孙五伯也。」，这就是说，孔子整理「六经」，对三皇、五帝、三王、五伯以来文化的进行综合，所谓集大成也。国学大师柳翼谋以孔子为「中国文化之中心」，「其前数千年之文化，赖孔子而传；其后数千年之文化，赖孔子而开；无孔子，则无中国文化」。钱穆亦认为「孔子为中国历史上第一圣人。在孔子以前，中国历史文化当已有两千五百年以上之积累，而孔子集其大成。在孔子以后，中国历史文化又复有两千五百年以上之演进，而孔子开其新统。在此五千多年，中国历史进程之指示，中国文化理想之建立，具有最深影响最大贡献者，殆无人堪与孔子相比伦。」宋儒朱熹曾叹曰：「天不生仲尼，万古如长夜」《朱子语类，卷九十三》。

孔子学说在中国周边地区，如：朝鲜半岛（汉代传入）、日本（唐代定型）、越南（宋明传承）等地，都有及于深远的精神影响，形成了东亚儒家文化圈。

尊孔与非孔

孔子提倡礼义之邦的理想在后世政治上经历代士大夫辨证取得法统地位，但独尊儒术也成为历代政权羁弥知识份子的手段，最具典型者为元朝，一方面将儒士贬为第九等人（乞丐为第十等），一方面又追封孔子为王，显见历代政权藉尊孔以钳制思想自由的背后保守反动动机。由此就产生非孔思潮，自魏晋南北朝起直到近代西方思潮等冲击，为了争取学术自由，不断产生知识分子极大的反抗力量。

近现代以来的新发展

清末到民国时期

孔子言论在近现代以来的新发展就是新儒学，又称新儒家，是近代西方文明输入中国以后，在中西文明碰撞交融条件下产生的新的儒家学派。狭义的新儒学，是指梁漱溟、张君劢、熊十力等人所提倡的新儒学。广义的新儒学则可上溯到鸦片战争以来关于儒学变革的所有学说。

从鸦片战争到戊戌变法是新儒学的准备阶段，这一阶段主要表现为儒家学者在西方文明冲击之下被动接受西方文明的一些内容以求自强，「中学为体，西学为用」是这一阶段的代表思想。

从戊戌变法到辛亥革命是新儒学的萌芽阶段，这一阶段主要表现为康有为、梁啓超等人日趋成熟的托古改制的社会改良思想，即用儒学来解释改良思想。代表作有《大同书》等。

从戊戌变法到五四运动是新儒学的嬗变阶段，这一阶段主要表现为孙文的籍古创制，孙文在学习西方民主经验和思考西方弊政的基础上，仿慕儒家体制创立了政权与治权分立的民权学说和五权分立的政体学说。在《建国方略》中慕仿周礼制订了非常详细的「结会」「动议」等程序和仪规；在《民族主义》讲稿中以恢复「忠孝、仁爱、信义、和平」等儒家道德，作为复兴民族的基础；在《民权主义》讲稿中以儒家「圣贤才智平庸愚劣」的观念来讲解真平等与假平等的分野。在《民生主义》讲稿中以儒家倡导的大同主义作为民生主义和社会主义的同义语。

从五四运动到中华人民共和国建立是新儒学的开宗明义阶段，这一阶段主要表现为梁漱溟、张君劢、熊十力等人开始在「新儒学」旗帜下进行的儒学研究。新儒学开宗的政治基础是当时的官方意识形态三民主义中含有儒学的内容。这一阶段的特徵是：新儒学的活动主要体现于思想领域；新儒学的目标是在汇通中西文化的前提下解释和发展儒学。代表作有梁漱溟的《东西文化及其哲学》、《人心与人生》、贺麟的《儒家思想的新开展》等，尤其是梁漱溟的《人心与人生》可谓现世之见孔子之真者。主要成果是熊十力继承陆王心学构筑的「新儒学思想体系」和冯友兰的「新理学」。总的说来，新儒学基本上是以儒学的「内圣外王」为立宗之本的，它是在儒学遭到普遍责难的时候出现的。这一阶段的新儒学在思想研究领域进行了一些探索，但是没有对社会发展产生有价值的影响。

中华人民共和国时期

从中华人民共和国建立到中国文化大革命结束是新儒学的沉寂阶段，这一阶段不仅中国大陆的新儒学研究归于沉寂，海外新儒学亦甚少成绩。

;批林批孔运动

在文化大革命期间，中国共产党中央委员会主席毛泽东提及「我赞成秦始皇，不赞成孔夫子」。至1974年，中国大陆发起「批林批孔」运动。这个运动流于外在形式，没有做真正的内在革新，黎鸣因此说到：「毛泽东事实上还在继续继承孔丘及其儒家的「亲亲尊尊长长」的价值观，还在继续坚持孔丘及其儒家所倡导的说谎的「文化」和禁言的「政治」。」

中国大陆各地的孔庙的文物古迹因此遭到了很大的破坏，连孔子墓亦被炸开，「大成至圣先师文宣王」大碑被砸断，庙碑、孔庙的泥胎塑像被捣毁。文化大革命时期批孔者辱称孔子为孔老二；明代之后衍圣公的坟墓全部被破坏，甚至有人将掘出的尸体挂于树上。并有诋毁孔子的著作，例如《孔老二罪恶的一生》传世。

文化大革命结束以后是新儒学的恢复和发展阶段。这一阶段尚在进行之中。恢复阶段的主要特徵是过去的一些新儒学著作重新进入人们的视野，学术界开始反思和讨论新儒学的功过利弊。发展阶段的主要特徵是在过去「新儒学」研究的基础上，对儒学和新儒学进行彻底的和全面的去糟取精古为今用。发展阶段的新儒学是当代和谐文化的组成部分，新兴的「大众儒学」是当代新儒学发展的最高成果。

;天安门竖孔子像

总高9.5公尺的孔子像于2011年1月11日竖立在天安门以东的国家博物馆北门广场，但是第99天时孔子像被悄悄移走，不知去向。外国媒体多认为官方想重建中国社会秩序，标志著中国人对孔子的一次重要反省。中国大陆部分左倾网站网民对此事件持反感态度。

纪念

祭孔

历代帝王之祀孔子者，自汉高祖始。《汉书·高帝纪》：「过鲁，以太牢祠孔子。」而学校祀孔，自明帝始。《后汉书·礼仪志》：「永平二年，……养三老五更于辟雍；郡、县、道行乡饮酒礼于学校，皆祀圣师周公、孔子。」《文献通考》：「贞观二年，停祭周公，升孔子为先圣」。盖自汉以来，虽已举国崇奉孔子之教，而立庙奉祀，近于宗教性质者，乃由人心渐演渐深，踵事增华之故，初非孔子欲创立一教，亦非仅一二帝王或学者，假孔子之教以愚民也。

后人为了纪念孔子，在世界很多地方都有建有孔庙进行祭孔的活动。从1952年开始，在台湾，孔子的生日被定为教师节。在大陆，改革开放以后随著中华文化的复兴，祭孔活动兴起。

孔府、孔庙、孔林

中国山东曲阜的孔庙、孔府、孔林合称「三孔」是中国历代纪念孔子，推崇儒学的表徵。孔庙始建于公元前478年，历经2400多年而从未放弃祭祀，是中国使用时间最长的庙宇，也是中国现存最为著名的古建筑群之一；孔林是孔丘死后葬身之墓地，延续使用2400多年，不仅是中国也是世界上延用时间最长的氏族墓地；孔子嫡孙保有世袭罔替的爵号，历时2100多年，是中国最古老的贵族世家，其府第孔府是中国现存规模最大、保存最好、最为典型的官衙与宅第合一的建筑群。「三孔」已被联合国教科文组织列入《世界遗产名录》。

历代追封追谥

孔子去世后，历代帝王为彰显对孔子的尊崇，不断追封追谥。

现代文艺作品

小说

• 1989年《孔子》日本作家井上靖之作。

电影

• 1940年版《孔夫子》由唐槐秋饰演孔子。

• 1985年版《孔子》由曹见得饰演孔子。

• 2010年版《孔子》（又译：孔子：决战春秋）由周润发饰演孔子。

电视剧

• 1990年版《孔子》由王绘春饰演孔子。

• 2010年版《孔子春秋》由朱刚日尧饰演孔子。

• 2011年版《孔子》由赵文瑄饰演孔子。

• 2012年版《智胜鲜师》由曾国城饰演孔子。

动画片

• 《孔子传》（1995年）（台湾公视与日本NHK、韩国KBS三国共同合力制作）

• 《孔子》（2009年）

邮票

• 1989年9月28日中华人民共和国发行了《J162M孔子诞生2540周年（小型张）》，纪念孔子诞辰

注释

参考来源

书目

• 中国文化基本教材类编本第一至三册 何寄澎教授主编 龙腾文化

• 新译四书读本 谢冰莹等人编译 三民书局印行

• 中国文学史演义第一册 钱念孙教授著 正中书局

外部链接

• 论语(繁体)

• 史记·孔子世家

• 孔子年谱

• 孔子的封谥号

• 孔子 （《中华百科全书》）

• 孔氏宗亲网

• 中国伟大的哲学家、思想家、儒家学派创始人孔子

延伸阅读

• 黄俊杰：〈孔子心学中潜藏的问题及其诠释之发展：以「吾道一以贯之」的诠释为中心〉〉。

• 黄勇：〈「好德如好色」：孔子对当代美德伦理学的贡献〉。

• 黄勇：〈为什么不该转过你的左脸：孔子论如何对待作恶者〉。

• 刘述先：〈论孔子思想中隐含的「天人合一」一贯之道——一个当代新儒学的阐释〉。

• 柯马丁：〈孔子：汉代作者〉。

• 二阶堂善弘：〈关于民间寺庙祭孔的状况——以闽台地区为主〉。