Names

Lao Tzu itself is a Chinese honorific title: 老 (Old *rˤuʔ, "old, venerable") and 子 (Old *tsəʔ, "master"). In traditional accounts, Laozi's actual personal name is usually given as Li Er Old *rəʔ nəʔ, Mod. Lǐ Ěr) and his courtesy name as Boyang Old *Pˤrak-lang, Mod. Bóyáng). A prominent posthumous name was Li Dan Lǐ Dān). Sima Qian in his biography mentions his name as Lǐ Ěr, and his literary name as Lǐ Dān, which became the deferential Lǎo Dān Lǎo Dān). The name Lǎo Dān also appears interchangeably with Lǎo Zi in early Daoist texts such as the Zhuangzi, and may also be the name by which Lao Tzu was addressed by Confucius when they possibly met. According to the Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, "the 'founder' of philosophical Daoism is the quasi-legendary Laodan, more commonly known as Laozi (Old Master)".

The honorific title Lao Tzu has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes leading to confusion. The most common present form is still Lao Tzu, which is based on the formerly prevalent Wade–Giles system. In the 19th century, the title was usually romanized as Lao-tse. Other forms include the variants Lao-tze, Lao-tsu and Laozi/Lao Zi.

As a religious figure, he is worshipped under the name "Supreme Old Lord" , Tàishàng Lǎojūn) and as one of the "Three Pure Ones". During the Tang dynasty, he was granted the title "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" Tàishàng Xuānyuán Huángdì).

Historical views

In the mid-twentieth century, a consensus emerged among scholars that the historicity of the person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the Tao Te Ching was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands".

The earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st‑century BC Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts. In one account, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BC. His surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan. He was an official in the imperial archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi and wrote a book in 15 parts. In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century BC reign of Duke Xian of the Qin Dynasty. The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was part of the Guodian Chu Slips. It was written on bamboo slips, and dates to the late 4th century BC.

According to traditional accounts, Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the Zhuangzi.

He was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu. In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier.

The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made.

Many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi, including the emperors of the Tang dynasty. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏). According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.

The third story in Sima Qian states that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te Ching, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again. In others, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha. Others say he was the Buddha himself.

A seventh-century work, the Sandong Zhunang ("Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), embellished the relationship between Laozi and Yinxi. Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Laozi was not satisfied by simply being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation. Yinxi expressed his deep desire to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi's approach. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple. This is considered an exemplary interaction between Taoist master and disciple, reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted. A would-be adherent is expected to prove his determination and talent, clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own towards realizing the Tao.

The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues the parallel of an adherent's quest. Yinxi received his ordination when Laozi transmitted the Tao Te Ching, along with other texts and precepts, just as Taoist adherents receive a number of methods, teachings and scriptures at ordination. This is only an initial ordination and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his virtue, thus Laozi gave him three years to perfect his Tao. Yinxi gave himself over to a full-time devotional life. After the appointed time, Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust, sending out a black sheep to market as the agreed sign. He eventually meets again with Laozi, who announces that Yinxi's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals. The story continues that Laozi bestowed a number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe, even into the nine heavens. After this fantastic journey, the two sages set out to western lands of the barbarians. The training period, reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". In this legend, Laozi is the perfect Taoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi is presented as the Tao personified, giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation. Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.

The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Taoism took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Masters, the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later mature Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the Tao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.

Taoist myths state that Laozi was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree. (The Chinese surname Li shares its character with "plum".) Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life. Other myths state that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi. In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived nine hundred and ninety years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.

File:Laozi.jpg|According to Chinese legend, Laozi left China for the west on a water buffalo.

File:Laozi meets Yin Xi.PNG|Laozi meets Yinxi

File:Konfuzius-laozi.jpg|Confucius meets Laozi, Shih Kang, Yuan dynasty

File:Lao Tzu - Project Gutenberg eText 15250.jpg|Depiction of Laozi in E. T. C. Werner's Myths and Legends of China

Tao Te Ching

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing), though the identity of its author(s) or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history. It is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. In fact, the whole book can be read as an analogy – the ruler is the awareness, or self, in meditation and the myriad creatures or empire is the experience of the body, senses and desires.

The Tao Te Ching, often called simply Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.

Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.

Wu wei (無為), literally "non-action" or "not acting", is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching. The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".

It is a concept used to explain ziran (自然), or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang "sitting in oblivion" (emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi.

Taoism

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism, intimately connected with the Tao Te Ching and "primordial" (or "original") Taoism. Popular ("religious") Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.

Influence

Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower in traditional accounts, had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture. Lao Tsu influenced millions of Chinese people by his psychological understanding. He persuaded people by his inaction and non-speaking.

Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak.

Laozi was a proponent of limited government. Left-libertarians in particular have been influenced by Laozi – in his 1937 book Nationalism and Culture, the anarcho-syndicalist writer and activist Rudolf Rocker praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding of the opposition between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community. In his 1910 article for the Encyclopædia Britannica, Peter Kropotkin also noted that Laozi was among the earliest proponents of essentially anarchist concepts. More recently, anarchists such as John P. Clark and Ursula K. Le Guin have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism in various ways, highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular. In her rendition of the Tao Te Ching, Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way. No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."

The right-libertarian economist Murray Rothbard suggested that Laozi was the first libertarian, likening Laozi's ideas on government to Friedrich Hayek's theory of spontaneous order. James A. Dorn agreed, writing that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony." Similarly, the Cato Institute's David Boaz includes passages from the Tao Te Ching' in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader. Philosopher Roderick Long, however, argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers.

File:Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|A Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) fresco depicting Confucius and Laozi, from a tomb of Dongping County, Shandong, China

File:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|A detail of the same fresco

File:Laozi 002.jpg|A stone sculpture of Laozi, located north of Quanzhou at the foot of Mount Qingyuan

生平

出生

身份之爭

歷史上對老子的身份確認並不詳細，《史記》一書的《老子韓非列傳》認為老子疑似有三個可能，分別是：李耳、老萊子及太史儋。

• 一是老聃，擔任東周的守藏史藏書室官員，在洛陽管理周室的藏書及檔案。史記中有記載老子是楚國苦縣厲鄉曲仁里人，今屬河南省鹿邑縣。：「老子者，楚苦縣厲鄉曲仁里人也。姓李氏，名耳，字聃，周守藏室之史也。」。老子，老姓李氏，名耳，字聃。另外在《史記正義》中記載，「老子，楚國苦縣厲鄉曲仁里人也。姓李，名耳，字伯陽。一名重耳，外字聃。身長八尺八寸，黃色美眉，長耳大目，廣額疏齒，方口厚唇，日月角懸，鼻有雙柱。周時人，李母懷胎八十一年而生。」。老姓出於老童，顓頊之後也。而李氏出於皋陶，「理」、「李」古通，該族以官為氏。理官即今之司法官也，掌審判。後人或稱其姓李，或謂老為生而白首，或愈說愈玄，實為姓氏不分，而大作文章所致。一說先秦典籍中沒有提及「李耳」，此二字或由「老聃」二字轉出亦有可能。「耳」與「聃」字義相應。「老」和「李」古音同，「李」姓或由「老」姓轉出，如荀卿轉為孫卿。老子即老聃或許是可以確認的，如《莊子》文中時常稱老聃，見于《天運》篇，《庚桑楚》篇等。

• 二是老萊子，因老聃與老萊子的出生地相同。

• 三是太史儋，司馬遷在其《史記》中曾懷疑太史儋就是道家學派的創始人老子：「或曰儋即老子，或曰非也，世莫知其然否。」，太史儋曾出任周朝史官，故稱「太史儋」或「周太史儋」。不過許多人不認可這種觀點，他們認為周太史儋後于孔子一百餘年，與《禮記》等諸多典籍所記載的孔子入周問禮于老子不合，二則，據《史記》記載，他曾經西入秦會見秦獻公。但至于見秦獻公的年份，司馬遷也沒弄很清楚，他在《老子列傳》中認為是孔子去世後129年，也即公元前350年。但在《周本紀》中又說是周烈王二年，即公元前374年，相差了24年。而據郭店楚簡中已有《老子》的摘抄，說明那時《老子》一書已比較流行。郭店楚簡的年份也定在在公元前350年至公元前300年前之間。《老子》如果為周太史儋所著，不可能一成書就流傳到楚國去。所以司馬遷在寫到周太史儋時，用了「或曰儋即老子，或曰非也，世莫知其然否」，來表示以周太史儋為老子，只是當時的一種推測。

故里之辯

老子確切出生地不詳，關于老子故里的文字記載更是少之甚少，最早見于司馬遷《史記•老子列傳》記載老子的出生地是在楚國苦縣厲鄉曲仁里，今屬河南省鹿邑縣，《漢書》、《後漢書》及《資治通鑑》也沿用司馬遷的記載，楚就是古代楚國，苦縣就是今鹿邑縣，厲鄉（或作「瀨鄉、賴鄉」）就是縣城東的太清宮鄉，而曲仁里就是今鎮政府所在地——太清宮鎮。這本是一樁鐵案，歷代均史不絕書。如古苦縣即今鹿邑，公私著述記載者就有如下數家。《史記索隱》：「苦縣本屬陳國，春秋時楚滅陳，而苦又屬楚，故云楚苦縣。至高帝十一年，立淮陽國，陳縣、苦縣皆屬焉。今檢《地理志》，苦實屬淮陽郡。」《史記正義》引《年表》：「淮陽國，景帝三年廢。至天漢修史之時，楚節王純都彭城，相近。疑苦此時屬楚國，故太史公書之。」梁玉繩《史記志疑》曰：「《四書釋地·又續》曰：『苦縣屬陳，老子生時，地尚楚未有。陳滅于楚惠王，在春秋獲麟後三年，孔子已卒，況老聃乎？史冠楚于苦縣上，以老子為楚人者，非也。』余因考葛洪《神仙傳》謂苦縣人；邊韶《老子銘》謂楚相縣人，春秋之後，『相縣荒虛，今屬苦』者，並乃《史記》之誤。惟皇甫謐《高士傳》雲陳人，《經典釋文·序錄》雲陳國苦縣人，固未嘗誤，然《禮·曾子問疏》引《史記》作陳國苦縣，豈據別本乎？」 《通典•州郡》：「真源，古之苦縣，老子生于此。」《括地誌》：「苦縣在亳州谷陽縣界。有老子宅及廟，廟中有幾井尚存，在今亳州真源縣也。」《歷代地理沿革表》卷二十五：「苦，漢屬淮陽國，後漢屬陳國。三國仍稱苦縣。晉成康三年更名為谷陽。唐乾封元年更名真源。建元元年改曰仙源，神龍元年複名真源。宋大中祥符七年夏，更名衛真，全同。元初省衛真，入鹿邑，後遷鹿邑治，此屬亳州。」《元和郡縣圖志》卷七：「真源縣，本楚苦縣，春秋時屬陳，後為楚所並。隋開皇六年，後置谷陽縣，理苦城，屬亳州。」《歷代疆域表•漢•淮陽國》：「苦縣，今鹿邑縣東10里楚之苦縣。」

上引典籍均以老子為苦縣人，且記載了苦縣更多及隸屬沿革的軌跡：東周及以前屬陳國鳴鹿（即今鹿邑辛集鄉）→春秋楚國苦縣→西漢淮陽國苦縣→東漢陳國苦縣→三國苦縣→晉更名谷陽縣→北齊撤谷陽入武平縣→隋谷陽縣→唐疊更名真源縣、仙源縣、真源縣→宋更名衛真縣→元撤衛真縣入鹿邑縣（移今治）→明、清沿襲，也曾多次屬亳州（或譙郡）。記載古厲鄉（或瀨鄉、賴鄉）的典籍也有如下數家。《後漢書•郡國志•陳國》：「苦……有賴鄉。」並引伏滔《北征記》說「有老子廟」，引《古史考》說「有曲仁里，老子裡也」。《晉太康地記》：「苦縣城東有瀨鄉祠，老子所生地也。」《朱韜玉札》與《神仙傳》：「老子，楚國苦縣瀨鄉曲仁里人。」《元和郡縣圖志》卷七：「（唐）乾封元年，高帝幸瀨鄉，以玄元皇帝于此，遂改為真源縣。」《輿地誌》記載：「老子祠，即老子所生舊宅。」《歷代地理沿革表》卷二十五：「苦，春秋時曰相，有瀨鄉，老子所居也。」《歷代疆域表•漢•淮陽國》：「老子苦縣厲鄉人，春秋時屬陳；楚滅陳後，苦又屬楚。」

以上均詳盡記載了老子為苦縣厲鄉或瀨鄉、賴鄉人。且考之音韻，「瀨、賴、厲」為一韻之轉，「厲鄉、瀨鄉、賴鄉」實為一地之異名。該地名的歷史可遠溯商代。那時在今鹿邑縣東，有一小小方國——賴（瀨、歷）。周滅商後，賴歸陳。但有人認為，賴國在西周時即不存在。《春秋僖公十五年》云：「楚人伐徐」（徐在今安徽泗縣西北約50里處）；「秋七月，齊師、曹師伐厲。」《左傳》說：「秋，伐厲，以救徐也。」惠棟《械傳補註》以為即《左傳桓十三年》之賴，在今湖北省隨縣之厲山店，晉、宋以來沿襲惠說。王夫之《疏》以此為另一厲，即苦縣厲鄉。今以地理考之，齊移救徐之師以伐厲，可証成王說。另外，出土銅器《魯大司徒銘》云：「魯大嗣（司）徒子仲白乍（作）其庶女歷孟姬也。」另據《水經注》「渦水又東徑苦縣西南，分為二水，枝流東北注，于賴城入谷，謂死谷也」、「渦水又東北屈，至賴鄉西，谷水注之」和「渦水又東徑賴鄉城南」的記載，歷或賴的都城北魏時還有明顯遺址，否則酈道元不會言之鑿鑿。據上，春秋「厲」（或「賴」「瀨」），即今鹿邑縣太清宮，為古厲國都城所在，亦即老子故里。請看，《太康地記》雲「苦縣城東有瀨鄉祠，老子所生地」；《輿地誌》雲「老子祠，即老子所生舊宅」；《歷代地理沿革表》雲「苦，有瀨鄉老子所居也」；《史記集解》引《括地誌》雲「苦縣在亳州谷陽縣界，有老子宅及廟」；《元和郡縣圖志》雲「乾封元年，高帝幸瀨鄉，以玄元皇帝于此，遂改為真源縣」；唐僧道宣《廣弘明集序》說「李叟生于厲鄉」；《太平寰宇記》引崔元山《瀨鄉記》雲「瀨鄉在（苦）縣」；《歷代疆域表•淮陽國》雲「老子苦縣厲鄉人。春秋時屬陳；楚滅陳後，苦又屬楚」。上述文獻完全可信且于今有証：「賴鄉」就是今鹿邑縣城東太清宮鎮一帶地方，舊時出土的《魯大司徒銘》與最新考古發掘均為有力証據（詳下）。

至于「曲仁里」，有鹿邑縣城東門內的老君台正門牌坊上的聯語可以為証。聯語云：「地古永傳曲仁里，天高近接太清宮。」曲仁里作為「賴鄉」的下級行政單位，即今太清宮鎮（筆者幼時以至青年時代即在此鎮讀書、工作）。太清宮鎮在縣城東5公里處（與《瀨鄉記》《歷代疆域表》均符合若），舊名又為「猶龍鎮」，義取《史記•老子列傳》孔子「吾今日見老子，其猶龍邪」。鎮內西北角有一方圓數十丈高地，父老相傳謂之「隱陽山」；一條小河發源于此，當地至今名之為「瀨（瀨）鄉溝」，該溝貫穿太清宮鎮全境。此水名與歷代文獻恰好符合（其本字應作「賴」）。至于「曲仁里」的含義，或許即邊韶《老子銘》所謂「曲渦間即曲仁里也」。這也是目前海內外道教界的共識。

1991年時安徽省渦陽縣教師楊光在《阜陽師範學院學報》社科版上投稿《老子生地考辨》一文，得出老子出生地在今安徽省渦陽縣閘北鎮鄭店村的結論，此說法存在爭議。

孔子問道

後因為東周王室衰落，周天子實際上名存實亡，多地發生叛亂，諸侯爭相稱霸稱王，禮崩樂壞持續了二百多年。周襄王十七年(前635年)，就發生「子帶之亂」，遂為伯而得河內地，大量典籍被掠奪到楚國的國都（郢），老子因而被免職。 隨後老子清心潛隱，與孔子來往較多。踐土會盟後，孔丘曾經適周問禮從魯國國都（今山東曲阜）千里迢迢趕到洛邑（今河南洛陽）問向老聃禮樂。

《史記·老子韓非列傳》中曾記載孔子向老子請教關於禮的問題。孔子年五十一，適周問禮於老子。後曰：「五十知天命。」。在今洛陽有「孔子入周問禮碑」。《史記·老子韓非列傳》：孔子適周，將問禮于老子。老子曰：「子所言者，其人與骨皆已朽矣，獨其言在耳。且君子得其時則駕，不得其時則蓬累而行。吾聞之，良賈深藏若虛，君子盛德容貌若愚。去子之驕氣與多欲，態色與淫志，是皆無益于子之身。吾所以告子，若是而已。」

著寫五千言的傳說

相傳，當時身為柱下史的老子不忍見周朝衰落，同時也為避禍而西出函谷關之前，被時任守關要職的「關令」（官名）尹喜（「關令尹喜曰」一說為守關的令尹感到高興）攔住，並邀請作客，向他請教周禮。李聃在當時總結思想著述，並對尹喜道：「老夫授汝《道德經》，分上下兩篇，上篇為《道經》，言宇宙根本，含天地變化之機，蘊神鬼應驗之秘;下篇為《德經》，言處世之方，含人事進退之術，蘊長生久視之道。研習不止，苦修不懈，終有所成！」，而後留下五千言一書，又稱老子，道教稱《道德經》，倒騎青牛而去。

在神話故事中，尹喜在土台（今「瞻紫樓」）望氣，見東方紫氣騰騰，霞光萬道，觀天象奇景，欣喜若狂，大呼」紫氣東來，必有異人通過」。忙令關吏清掃街道，恭候異人，此後函谷關一帶的門楣或春聯都肯寫「紫氣東來」四個大字，流傳至今，所以古稱「紫氣東來函谷關，老子著書五千言」。杜甫在《秋興》詩中寫道：「西望瑤池降王母，東來紫氣滿函關」。

個人思想

老子創有zh-hans:朴; zh-hant:樸;素的辯証法。名句：「禍兮，福之所倚；福兮，禍之所伏。物或損之而益，或益之而損」。這部流傳兩千多年的《道德經》是跨時代的作品，在不同的時代，這部作品會被解釋出不同的含義。據統計，道德經是僅次于基督教《聖經》被翻譯語言最多的一部作品。

老子是道家性命雙修的始祖，於生命上主張自然，講究致虛極，守靜篤、不與人爭的修持。老子在政治上主張的無為而治和小國寡民，老子有一段話常被視為對為政者的箴言：「天之道，損有餘而補不足；人之道則不然，損不足以奉有餘。」；「民之飢，以其上食稅之多；民之輕死，以其上求生之厚；民不畏死，奈何以死懼之。」

道家學說

《漢書‧藝文志》謂：「道家者流，蓋出于史官，歷記成敗存亡禍福，古今之道，然後知秉要執本，清虛以自守，卑弱以自持，此君人南面之術也。」西漢史學家司馬談《論六家要旨》謂：「道家使人精神專一，動合無形，贍足萬物。其為術也，因陰陽之大順，採儒墨之善，撮名法之要，與時遷移，應物變化，立俗施事，無所不宜，指約而易操，事少而功多。」「其術以虛無為本，以因循為用。無成埶，無常形，故能究萬物之情。不為物先，不為物後，故能為萬物主。」。

《莊子》文中有提到老聃，如內篇、徳充符篇及外雜篇。《荀子》天論編中也有接觸老子的思想，「老子有見於詘，無見於信」。呂不韋的《呂氏春秋》中也提到「老耽貴柔」。

去世

老子末年于狄道府（今甘肅臨洮）逝世。《莊子》文中載有「老聃死，秦失（佚）吊之，三號而出」，是老子老死於秦國的證據。對老子的事跡已不能確定，將李耳、老萊子與太史儋並列，稱老子一百六十餘歲或二百餘歲。

隱居廣陽山的六年說

據舊《沙河縣誌》、《順德府志》和廣陽山古碑記載，以及中國老子研究會專家經過多次的實地考察、論証，認定廣陽山就是老子昔年講學、隱居修行的處所，並且邢台沙河市是老子在中國開壇講經的第一道場。

老子化胡說

一說老子並沒有去世，而是到了西域，並對西域人實行教化，這就是所謂的「老子化胡」。老子化胡說源出東漢，漢桓帝延熹九年（166年）襄楷所上奏章中有「或言老子入夷狄為浮屠」的說法。

《三國志·魏書》：「浮屠所載，與中國老子經相出入，蓋以老子西出關，過西域，至天竺教胡，及浮屠弟子合二十有九。」西晉天師道祭酒王浮撰寫《老子化胡經》，稱老子攜尹喜西入天竺，化為佛陀，立浮屠教。書成之後，被佛教徒指為偽經，雙方爭論持續近千年。直至元代舊事重提，朝廷舉行辯論，結果，在當時道教失勢，包括《老子化胡經》等經書被焚毀禁止流傳。今各種《老子化胡經》俱無完帙，《太上靈寶老子化胡妙經》今有敦煌抄本S.2081存世，10卷本《老子化胡經》敦煌抄本中存有其中4卷：卷1、卷2、卷8、卷10。

家族

父

• 李敬，出仕於周定王，擔任御史大夫

母

• 益壽氏，楚國人

後代

• 李宗：老子之子。

• 李注：李宗之子，老子之孫。

• 李宮：李注之子。

• 李假：李宮玄孫，仕于漢孝文帝。

• 李解：李假之子，為膠西王卬太傅，因家于齊焉。

作品

五千言

《德道經》，又被人們廣泛稱為《道德真經》、《老子》。書名是後來的稱謂，最初這本書稱為《老子》而無《道德經》之名，或可能始于韓非子「解老」、「喻老」兩篇更前之先。全書形成于東周末期至春秋戰國時期，分上下兩篇，原文順序上篇為《德經》，下篇為《道經》，篇文不分章，相傳是老子留下約五千言的著作。近幾年考古工作後，與原通傳于世的西漢河上公本作比對，人們發現一些重要內容有明顯差別，因而有一種觀點認為西漢初年這本書還沒有統一得到定本，帝王和儒家為鞏固自身華夏正統地位，而故意密謀篡改此書。

《道德經》虛用第五：「天地不仁，以萬物為芻狗；聖人不仁，以百姓為芻狗。」《說文》：「芻，刈艸也。象包束艸之形。」段註：「謂可飤牛馬者。」芻為把草包成束，用以餵牛馬。此段為《道德經》爭議最大之處，多是從儒家的眼光窺之；實則，不仁，意指不偏私。芻狗，比喻皆是一視同仁地餵養。在老子眼中，人類並無高於動物，狗，與人一般，是有形之一。這在莊子的齊物論，已經闡述得非常清楚。從老子本書的意涵，亦可以看出，老子所說的天地不仁、聖人不言，實則是大自然運行的法則，而聖人效法而已。

《道德經》論述了修身、治國、用兵、養生之道，闡述自然無為的思想，其中包含了不少對立轉化的樸素辯証觀點。在形式上，此書是語錄體韻文，語言精練，多排比對偶之句。修辭凝練，音節鏗鏘，理雖玄遠，文實多姿。其修辭比況，多以政治為旨歸，被後世文士取法，是中國古代先秦諸子分家前的一部作品，又是早期中國哲學史上非常罕見的一部關于宇宙本體論的思辯書卷，被尊為「內聖外王」的必學之書，以及「萬經之王」。

十九世紀初，歐洲就開始了對《道德經》的研究，到二十世紀的四五十年代，歐洲共有60多種《道德經》譯文。20世紀80年代，據聯合國教科文組織統計，這本書的外文譯本已有近1000多種，涉及30多種語言，是除了《聖經》以外被譯成外國文字發布量最多的文化名著。

流傳版本

《道德經》有三種版本比較主要：

• 第一種現行所見的最早文本是1993年10月在湖北荊門郭店楚墓出土的那804枚戰國竹簡。

• 第二種版本是1973年12月在湖南長沙馬王堆出土的西漢帛書甲、乙本，其中有字簡730枚，共計13000多個漢字，為了避諱等諸多原因，帛書的內容有所改動，全冊的字體分隸書、篆體兩種不同的書法，其中前兩種是道家學派的著作，其餘多為儒家學派的著作。

• 第三種是通傳的漢代河上公本《老子章句》和曹魏王弼本，全書共有81章，前三十七章為《道經》，後四十二章為《德經》。

據統計，清代之前，《道德經》版本有103種之多，都是從漢以來經每個朝代的文人墨客撰寫流傳而來。古書在上千年的傳抄、刻印過程中難免出現錯誤，因此，在不斷地出現校訂本，迄今為止，校訂本共三千多種。目前，學術界較為重視的版本，是王弼的版本，和長沙馬王堆出土的兩個抄本，稱為帛書甲本、乙本。帛書道德經，早王弼本400餘年，近些年許多學者推崇帛書，但甲本缺字1400，乙本缺字600。

千百年來，為《道德經》作註疏者不計其數。元代正一天師張與材曾說：「《道德經》八十一章，注本三千餘家。」據學者調查，流傳至今的《道德經》注本約有一千餘種。

作者爭議

史學界對于《五千言》的作者究竟是誰，究竟哪一位是撰寫《道德經》一書的「老子」，至今未有定論。

勞思光在《中國文化要義》一書曾指出，老子在世年份應後於孔子、向孔子授禮的老子應不是《五千言》的作者、老子受關令尹喜之邀著書然後出關的故事應為杜撰。易中天在其講座中也曾表示，認為孔子向其問禮的那個「老聃」，應該不是撰寫《五千言》的作者。民國初年學者馮友蘭則認為《道德經》是在戰國後期著作；學者胡適則認為這是春秋時期的作品。

宗教的人格神化

道教創立與神話

道教可以上溯到原始社會中國人祭天的活動，後來逐漸產生了方仙道、黃老道等思想，于是，老子就被人們尊為道祖。所以，道教門徒認為：老子是太清神之下。又稱老子為「太上混元老君、梵形神寶玄真降生道德天尊」，通稱「太上老君」，簡稱「老君」。又稱「道德天尊」、「混元老君」等。尤其是在商以前，認為老君即分身下降，隨世立教，事竟則隱，故在世未有誕生之跡。至商十八世王陽甲踐祚之十七年，公神化氣，老君自太清境分神化，寄胎于玄妙王之女理氏（又稱玄妙玉女）腹中，于武丁九年二月十八日降生，所以每年的農曆二月十五，為道教重大節日，乃道祖太上老君「聖誕」。道德天尊，乃道教天神，傳說中的道教教主。這是最早關于老君誕生之跡的紀傳。周昭王二十三年老君西過函谷關，度關令尹喜，授以道德五千言，此後被道教奉為開山祖師。從《列仙傳》開始，把老子列為神仙，還說老子重視房中術。

東漢明帝、章帝之際（公元 58～88 年），益州太守成都人王阜撰《老子聖母碑》，將老子神化為先天地之神物，把老子和道合而為一，視老子為化生天地的神靈。成為了道教創世說的雛形4。而漢桓帝更是親自祭祀老子，把老子作為仙道之祖。為謀塑造的便利，工匠們在那時候就開始把老子肖像由「拂塵」轉變成手執「蒲扇」，並傳說老子居住大羅天上太清仙境，其道教尊稱名稱為「道德天尊」，俗曰「太上老君」，也是道教最高尊神三清道祖之一。至魏晉南北朝，太上老君之名益顯。

漢順帝時（公元 126～144 年）張陵在巴蜀鶴鳴山創立五斗米道，即奉老子為教主。據傳張陵（另一說認為該書作者是張陵之孫張魯）在傳教布道時作的《老子想爾注》稱：「一者道也。……一在天地外，入在天地間，但往來人身中耳……一散形為氣，聚形為太上老君，常治崑崙，或言虛無，或言自然，或言無名，皆同一耳。」首次在道書中出現了太上老君的名號。

東晉葛洪的《神仙傳》匯集群書所見之老子傳記，或稱老子先天地生，或稱其母懷孕七十二年生，生而白髮，故稱老子。亦有稱其母于李樹下生，生而能言，指樹而姓「李」，把先天神降格為後天神。然而據東漢延熹八年陳相邊韶的《老子銘》，老子「離合于混沌之氣，與三光為終始」，「道成化身，蟬蛻度世」。

北周武帝建德三年五月「初斷佛、道兩教，經像悉毀，罷沙門、道士，並令還民」。據道書稱，當時太上老君曾遣使顯靈。時過一月，武帝即又下詔曰：「至道弘深，混成無際，體包空有，理極幽玄……今可立通道觀于都城……並宜弘闡，一以貫之。」

以後「三清」神名逐漸流變發展，至唐代才成為定說。唐武宗時，道教依據先前的神話，將老子定為是三清尊神之一太上老君的第十八個化身。為「三清」之第三位，三清為「玉清」元始天尊、「上清」靈寶天尊、「太清」道德天尊。

《道藏·太平部·三洞珠囊》卷七引《老君聖跡》云：「此即玉清境，元始天尊位，在三十五天之上也。此即上清境，太上大道君（靈寶天尊）位，在三十四天之上也。太清境太極目，即太上老君〔道德天尊〕位，在三十三之上也。」于是「三清」遂成為道教的最高神。唐代皇室，以老子李耳為同姓，崇奉太上老君，累加尊號。唐高宗尊太上老君為「太上玄元皇帝」，唐玄宗三上尊號，稱「大聖祖高上大道金闕玄元天皇大帝」，立道教為國教。太上老君不僅被奉為李唐王朝的始祖，幫助唐高祖李淵平定天下，據稱當武則天篡奪李唐王朝後，又顯靈降世，謂「武后不可革命」，「不得輒立異姓……武后亦終懼此言，不敢立武三思」。

到宋真宗于大中祥符六年（1013 年）加號「太上老君混元上德皇帝」，是歷代帝王對太上老君的最後一次加封。明成祖朱棣崇尚老子為其化身真武大帝大修武當，有北修故宮，南修武當之稱。

非遺文化的申報

安徽渦陽的老子傳說（Lao Zi legend）在渦陽代代相傳，大多採用地方口語，語言通俗優美，有著較高的文學研究價值，分為兩個部分：第一部分刻畫了老子從童年到暮年的成長過程；第二部分是有關老子和天靜宮的傳說。渦陽縣天靜宮景區是與港澳台同胞共同修建完成的。

老子這樣一個人物歷經幾千年的神化和傳說，已經是家喻戶曉，耳熟能詳。2014年11月11日，經中華人民共和國批准將河南「老子傳說」列入第四批國家級非物質文化遺產代表性項目名錄和國家級非物質文化遺產代表性項目名錄擴展項目名錄，並由安徽省渦陽縣和河南省靈寶市申辦的《老子傳說》上榜。鹿邑的太清宮是老子的出生地，明道宮是老子的講道升仙地，已入批為國家級AAAA級旅遊景區。

後世悼懷

名家評價

• 孔子曰：「鳥，吾知其能飛；魚，吾知其能游；獸，吾知其能走。走者可以為網，游者可以為綸，飛者可以為矰，至于龍，吾不能知，其乘風雲而上天。吾今日見老子，其猶龍邪！」

• 戰國道家學派的代表人物莊子：「關尹、老聃乎，古之博大真人哉！」

• 北宋文學家蘇轍在《雙溪集·遺言》說：「言至道無如五千文。」

• 南宋閩學派、程朱理學的創始人朱熹說：「蓋老聃，周之史官，掌國之典籍，三皇五帝之書，故能述古事而倍好之。如五千言，亦或古有是語而老子傳之，未可知也。」

• 清世祖愛新覺羅福臨評價稱：「老子道貫天人，德超品匯，著書五千餘言，明清靜無為之旨。然其切于身心，明于倫物，世固鮮能知之也。」

• 德國著名語言學家弗里德里希·尼採這樣評論老子其人：「老子思想的集大成——像一個永不枯竭的井泉，滿載寶藏，放下汲桶，唾手可得。」

唐代尊號

唐高宗在乾封元年（666年），追尊為太上玄元皇帝。唐玄宗在天寶二年（743年），追尊廟號聖祖，謚號玄元皇帝；在天寶八載（749年），追尊為聖祖大道玄元皇帝；在天寶十三載（754年），上尊號為大聖祖高上大道金闕玄元天皇大帝。

紀念建築

老君台

傳說中老子的誕生地，楚國苦縣（河南鹿邑縣的東北隅）的縣城東門內北側有一座升仙台，民間稱之為拜仙台、老君台，本來是明道宮之一，乃是唐玄宗天寶二年所建，台高13米 ，是由14個平面圍成的高壇形古建築，狀若圓柱有稜角，頂部面積765平方米，底面積略大，全台以古式大磚堆砌，由24個平面圍成圓柱形，台上環築七十厘米高的圍牆，形與城牆相似。台上有正殿三間，東西配殿各一間。正殿內原有老子銅像一尊，高兩米許，鑄工精巧。殿門簷下東西各嵌一碑，上書「道德真源」、「猶龍遺蹟」。山門內東側原有鐵柱一根，高七尺，徑七寸，山門下青石台階三十二級，加上正殿前一層，恰為三十三層，正合老子升三十三層天之說。進入山門，是正殿，面闊3間，硬山式建築，東西偏殿各一間。台上13棵檜柏青翠蔥鬱，常年涼風習習，百鳥飛鳴。山門向南約里許的中邊軸線上，依次有望仙橋、明道宮、文昌宮、八角亭、游龍堤坊、萬教之祖牌坊等。牌坊附近有「老子故里」、「孔子問禮處」兩塊碑碣。牌坊上聯為「地古永傳曲仁里」，下聯是「天高近接太清宮」，橫幅為「萬教之祖」。唐高祖李淵、高宗李治、玄宗李隆基、宋真宋趙桓，以及大文學家蘇東坡、歐陽修等曾來此或祭祀朝祖，或觀瞻遊覽，留下了不朽華章。現僅存一座高達數丈的台觀，上有一座正殿兩間配殿，正殿內供奉有老子銅像。鼎盛時期，台前有房宇百數，曾設有「鳴鹿書院」，現為老君台中學所在地。

傳說老子修道成仙，且于此處飛升，故得今之地名。宋真宗大中祥符七年（公元1014年）追封老子為「太上老君混元上德皇帝」，故又名老君台。

太清宮

太清宮鎮舊名厲鄉曲仁里，太清宮就位于河南省周口市鹿邑縣城東約5-10公里的太清宮鎮東北隅上，民間俗稱「前宮」。傳說這裡是老子的，也是祭祀老子的祠廟。據《後漢書》記載，太清宮最早建于東漢延熹八年（西元165年），最開始的名字叫「老子廟」，是由漢桓帝劉志派兩次派中常侍管霸到鹿邑創建這座老子祠建築，並在這個建築內立一座老子祠碑作為紀念。

唐太宗貞觀元年修老子廟；乾封中，高宗親詣道宮，追加老子「玄元皇帝」尊號，並修建「紫微宮」。開元三年玄宗親書《道德經》刻石立于宮內；天寶二年，將「紫微宮」換作「太清宮」。

1997年河南省文物考古工作隊在太清宮鎮出土了很多周、唐、宋元時期的文物、碑刻，發現了宋代殿堂遺址，整個建築面積2.4萬平方米，其中一座面積達3000平方米，是故宮太和殿的兩倍。20世紀80年代，河南人民政府撥款修複，建成太極殿、三聖母殿、娃娃殿、圍牆、山門等，並重雕玉石老君像，置于太極殿中。

洞霄宮

今河南省周口市鹿邑縣鎮北與前宮呈南北方向的「洞霄宮」，民間俗稱「後宮」。歷代所建老子宮殿廟宇多集中于此。自西漢始，老子地位不斷提高，帝王奉祀不絕，至唐達到頂峰。

東漢時，老子被道教奉為教祖，漢桓帝延熹間遣中常侍左官赴該地祀老子。隋開皇年間，文帝命亳州刺史楊元胄，營建宮宇。天寶二年，在太清宮後方設有「洞霄宮」，兩宮相距一里，中有河流，上有會仙橋；總占地872畝，各種建築600餘間，殿閣棋布，雄偉壯觀。前宮以太極殿為中心，東有老子牧牛場遺址，西有隱陽山遺址，中有九步井；內供老子像，殿側立有高約1.5米，直徑約25公分的鐵柱，為老子任柱下史的象徵。唐太和七年，文宗敕宣武軍節度使李程兼太清宮使予以修葺。當時「唐高祖、太宗、高宗、中宗、睿宗、明皇六聖御容，列侍于老君左右。兩宮二觀，古檜千餘樹，屋宇七百餘間，有兵士五百人鎮衛宮所」杜光庭：《道教為驗記》。宋建隆元年，皇帝遣使致祭；祥符五年，上老子尊號曰「太上混元上德皇帝」，宮名改為「明道宮」。繼唐玄宗以二月十五日為老子誕辰，宋徽宗重和元年以混元皇帝二月十五日生辰為貞元節，至今為道教重大節日。金大定二十四、二十六年，先後建三清、玉帝等大小殿宇數十，後因兵亂兼渦水改道，均蕩然無存。元朝經10餘年重修，曾頗具舊觀。明、清雖一再重修，終難再現昔日輝煌。

老君岩

在齊雲山上（今中國福建省泉州市豐澤區清源山西峰羅山山麓上）有一塊形似人像的巨大天然花崗岩雕琢而成的春秋時期思想家老子的坐像，名叫老君岩。雕像高5.1米，寬7.3米，厚7.2米，細部雕刻非常生動，面部和前額飽滿，雙目深邃平視前方，鬍鬚呈飄動狀，右臂倚琴桌、左手平放膝上，周身衣服的褶皺也被表現出來，這座造像的雕刻年代最遲不晚于宋。老君造像附近原有真君殿、北斗殿等道教建築群，現已不存。

老君岩始建于宋元時期，是中國現存最大的宋代道教石像，也是清源山的標誌性景點，雕工精湛，極富歷史和藝術價值。1988年列為中國第三批全國重點文物保護單位。2001年公布第五批全國重點文物保護單位時，將另外6處8尊石造像與老君岩造像合併保護，稱為「清源山石造像」。