Service under Later Zhao

Early life and career

The year of Yao Xiang's birth is a matter of controversy. It is said that he was born in 331 as the fifth child of Yao Yizhong's 42 children. However, Yizhong's 24th son, Yao Chang, was born the same year as Yao Xiang, leading some to believe that either Xiang or Chang's recorded birth year was an error. His father Yao Yizhong was a trusted general of Later Zhao. Yao Xiang was eight chi five cun tall (6 ft 8 In) and even in his youth, he was very popular among the gentry and common people for his talents and hospitality. His first recorded military action was in 350 amidst the aftermath of Ran Min's usurpation of the Later Zhao government. He fought against Yizhong's colleague, the Di leader Pu Hong, over the strategic location of Guanyou (關右, west of present-day Tongguan county, Shaanxi) but was badly routed.

Wei-Jie War

Later that year, Yao Yizhong was appointed the Prime Minister of the Right. As he looked for an heir, many of his subordinates and followers pushed for Yao Xiang. Yizhong declined, as Xiang was not the eldest son. However, support for Yao Xiang continued to grew, so Yizhong eventually chose Xiang as his heir. Xiang was later appointed by the Zhao ruler, Shi Zhi, as Commissioner Bearing Credentials.

In 351, Shi Zhi was besieged by Ran Min. Yao Yizhong sent Yao Xiang to lift the siege, but not before telling his son to swear that he would capture Ran Min for massacring the Shi clan. Yao Xiang arrived in Yecheng with assistance from Shi Kun (石琨) and Former Yan's general Yue Wan. Yao Xiang defeated Ran Min's general Hu Mu (胡睦) at Zhanglu (長蘆, in present-day Cangzhou, Hebei). As the three forces approached, Ran Min went out to give Yao Xiang battle.Yao Xiang, Shi Kun and Yue Wan attacked Ran Min from three sides while Shi Zhi came out to attack from behind. Ran Min suffered a terrible defeat but managed to escape. Though Xiang was victorious, he did not fulfill his promise. Yizhong was angered and punished Yao Xiang with a hundred floggings.

Flight to the south

Shi Zhi died later that same year after his subordinate, Liu Xian (劉顯), assassinated him and defect to Ran Min. Yao Yizhong submitted to the Jin dynasty and received a number of titles. Yao Xiang himself received General Who Pacifies the North and a few other positions. In 352, Yao Yizhong died. Before his death, he advised his son to join Jin now that the Shi clan had been destroyed. Yao Xiang succeeded his father but kept his death a secret. He attacked the counties of Fagan (發乾; present-day Guan County, Shandong), Yangping (陽平; present-day Shen County, Shandong) and Yuancheng (元城; present-day Daming county, Hebei) before stopping at Que'ao Crossing (碻磝, in present-day Chiping District, Shandong) to hand out appointments. He then continued his way south, encountering Former Qin forces and suffering a defeat at Matian (麻田, east of present-day Luoyang, Henan) along the way. In the battle, Yao Xiang's horse was shot, so Yao Chang gave his horse to Xiang to allow him to escape. Fortunately for the two, reinforcements arrived in time to save them. Yao Xiang's group finally arrived in Jin at Xingyang, where only then he started mourning ritual for his father.

As general of Jin

Yin Haos northern expedition

Yao Xiang sent five of his younger brothers to the Jiankang as hostages. The court accepted them and stationed Yao Xiang at Qiao (譙; present-day Bozhou, Anhui). The southlands were almost immediately charmed by Yao Xiang's personality and respected him greatly. Around this time, Yao Xiang visited the Jin official Xie Shang at Shouchun. Despite Xiang wearing a headscarf, Xie Shang easily recognised who he was, and the two quickly became close friends.

At the time of Yao Xiang's entry into the Jin dynasty, the Jin commander, Yin Hao, was carrying out his northern campaign. Yin Hao's target at the time was to capture the city of Xuchang from the warlord, Zhang Yu. In July 352, Yao Xiang and Xie Shang attacked the city. In response, Former Qin's Heavenly King, Fu Jiàn, sent Fu Xiong and Fu Jing (苻靚) to repel them and receive Zhang Yu. Xie Shang was defeated at Chengqiao (誠橋; near Xuchang) at the Ying River, causing him to retreat to Huainan. After hearing of Shang's defeat, Yao Xiang abandoned his baggages to escort Xie to safety at Que Slope (芍陂; south of present-day Shou County, Anhui), where Shang left matters to Xiang. The defeat forced Yin Hao's return to Shouchun and led to Xie Shang's demotion.

Escaping assassination

In 353, Yao Xiang believed that Former Qin and Former Yan had both grown strong, and to attack them would only result in defeat. Instead, he decided to set up military agricultural farms along the Huai River to train troops and strengthen Jin's frontier for the future. Yin Hao grew wary of Yao Xiang's growing power and wanted to kill him. Yin Hao had Xiang's younger brothers imprisoned before sending assassins against Yao Xiang. However, the assassins all thought highly of Xiang and instead revealed the plot to him. Soon, Yin Hao sent a general named Wei Jing (魏憬) to attack Yao Xiang by surprise instead, but Wei was defeated and killed by Xiang.

With both of his assassination plots having failed, Yin Hao decided to instead move Yao Xiang somewhere far from him. He had his general, Liu Qi (劉啟) stationed at Qiao and ordered Xiang to move from Qiao to Litai (蠡台, in present-day Shangqiu, Henan). Meanwhile, Yao Xiang became increasingly worried as he noticed that Wei Jing's sons and brothers were constantly visiting Yin Hao's base in Shouchun. Yao Xiang sent his advisor Quan Yi to discuss the issue with Yin Hao. The two men's meeting only confirmed their side's suspicion for one another and sowed further distrust.

Ambushing Yin Hao

Yin Hao marched north again in winter of 353, with Yao Xiang served as his vanguard. However, Yao Xiang now had the intention to break away from Jin. When Yin Hao's army were close by, Xiang pretended to flee north during the night while setting up ambushes for pursuing Jin forces. When Yin Hao heard about Yao Xiang's betrayal, he chased after Xiang all the way to Shansang (山桑; in present-day Mengcheng County, Anhui). Xiang's ambushes devastated Yin Hao's army as they killed and captured thousands of their forces. Yin Hao was forced to abandon his supplies and weapon before retreating to Qiao, allowing Xiang to claim them for himself. Xiang then left his brother Yao Yi (姚益) to guard Shansang while he returned south to Huainan.

As an independent warlord

Campaigns against Jin

Yin Hao sent Liu Qi and Wang Binzhi (王彬之) to attack Shansang, but Yao Xiang turned back from Huainan to attack them. After killing Liu and Wang, Yao Xiang marched to Que Slope and captured it. Soon, Yao Xiang crossed the Huai River and camped at Xuyi, where he gathered thousands of refugees and officials under his wing. He instructed his followers to farm and start silkworm cultivation while he sent envoys to Jiankang denouncing Yin Hao and apologising for actions. In response, the Jin court positioned Xie Shang at Liyang, in hopes that his friendship with Xiang would be enough to win him back.

The following year, Yao Xiang submitted to Former Yan and was appointed Inspector of Yuzhou and Duke of Danyang by Murong Jun. Later, a refugee leader named Guo Chang (郭敞) rebelled against Jin and captured Tangyi Commandery (堂邑, north of modern day Luhe District, Nanjing) along with its Interior Minister, Liu Shi (劉仕). Guo surrendered the commandery to Yao Xiang, which caused the Jin court to panic as this left Jiankang exposed to Xiang. The capital's defenses were tightened, and Xie Shang was moved from Liyang to the capital region to defend the Yangtze.

In 355, Yao Xiang declared himself Grand Chanyu and Grand General. Many of Xiang's followers were northerners, and because of this, they urged him to march north so that they could return home. Yao Xiang agreed, and along the way, he fought with the Jin general Gao Ji (高季) at Waihuang (外黃, east of modern day Qi County, Henan). He was defeated at first, but managed to regather his scattered troops and continued the assault. Gao eventually died of natural causes, allowing Xiang to overcome his leaderless army. Xiang then advanced to Xuchang and occupied the city.

Siege of Luoyang and Battle of Yi River

The next year in 356, Huan Wen was appointed by Jin as Grand Commander of the Expeditionary Force to campaign against Yao Xiang. At the same time, Yao Xiang led his army to capture Luoyang from the warlord Zhou Cheng (周成). He planned to establish the Hedong region (河東; around present-day Shanxi) as his base before pressing on to conquer Guandong. However, he was unable to capture Luoyang even after a month of siege. His Chief Clerk Wang Liang (王亮) advised him to retreat, but he refused, refuting his argument by claiming that Luoyang would make a valuable stronghold. Not long after, Wang Liang died, and Yao Xiang became remorseful of his death.

Soon enough, Huan Wen arrived at the Yi River, and Yao Xiang was forced to break off his siege in order to face him. Yao Xiang sent Huan Wen a letter that read, "I see you have brought the royal troops. I am now obliged to return to the rightful authority. If you would please order your army to draw back somewhat, we will gladly bow and pay our obeisance at the side of the road." Huan Wen, however, rejected him, replying, "I have come to recover the Central Plains and pay respect to the imperial tombs, so for that, I have no business with you. Those who wish to present themselves will do so in person, not send another in his place." The two fought at the river, and in the end, Huan Wen emerged victorious. Yao Xiang lost several thousands of his men, so he retreated with his army to the north of Luoyang.

Despite this, Xiang's defeat did not encourage many to surrender to Huan Wen. Yao Xiang was reputed to be brave and kind to the people, and wherever he was present, families would often rush to join him. While Yao Xiang fled, more than 5,000 men in Luoyang abandoned their families to join him during the night, and when rumours of Yao Xiang's death circulated, the men and women of Xuchang and Luoyang mourned him. Huan Wen gave chase but was unable to capture Yao Xiang. However, one of Yao Xiang's officer, Yang Liang (楊亮), turned back and surrendered to Huan. Huan Wen asked him what kind of man Yao Xiang was, to which he said, "Yao Xiang has divine wisdom and a broad mind, just like Sun Ce, but in valor and martial prowess he surpasses even the latter".

Campaign against Former Qin

Yao Xiang reached Pingyang, where he received the surrender of the Inspector of Bingzhou, Yin Chi (尹赤), who also happened to be one of his former subordinate. He then captured Xiangling (襄陵: in present-day Sui County, Henan) but was repelled by Former Qin's general Zhang Ping. Yao Xiang negotiated peace with Zhang Ping by swearing an oath of brotherhood, and the two forces withdrew from each other.

Death and posthumous honours

In the summer of 357, Yao Xiang intended to conquer the Guanzhong region from Former Qin. Yao Xiang camped at Xingcheng (杏城, in present-day Yan'an, Shaanxi), where he sent Yao Lan (姚蘭) to attack Fucheng as well as Yao Yisheng (姚益生) and Wang Qinlu (王欽盧) to get the surrender of the Qiang people. However, they were defeated by Fu Fei (苻飛), and Yao Lan was taken prisoner. Former Qin's emperor, Fu Sheng sent his generals Deng Qiang and Fu Huangmei (苻黃眉) to defeat Yao Xiang. Xiang initially refused to come out of Xingcheng and stuck to his defenses, but he soon became tempted to march out. A Buddhist monk named Zhitong (智通) warned him against this, but Xiang said, "Two roosters cannot perch on the same branch. I must believe that Heaven will not abandon the virtuous, and that it will save the people. My plan is decided."

Meanwhile, Deng Qiang knew that Xiang was flustered by his recent defeats with Huan Wen and Zhang Ping. Deng proposed a plan to Fu Huangmei in which Deng would lead his troops straight into Xingcheng, making loud noises with their drums and wildly waving their flags to lure Yao Xiang out. Deng did so and Xiang was immediately provoked. Xiang quickly brought his army out to fight, and Deng feigned retreat. Xiang pursued him until they reached Sanyuan, where they were met with Qin forces under Fu Huangmei and Fu Jiān. Yao Xiang was heavily defeated, and he attempted to flee on his horse, Limeigua (黧眉騧). However, his horse fell, and this time he was killed.

Yao Chang took over Yao Xiang's army and surrendered to Former Qin. Yao Xiang was given a ducal funeral by Fu Sheng, while his father Yao Yizhong, whose coffin he carried around, was given one for a prince. Yao Chang would become an important general in Former Qin but following Qin's disastrous defeat at the Battle of Feishui and his fall out with Fu Jiān, he would establish his state of Later Qin in 384, posthumously naming his brother 'Prince Wu of Wei'.

Cao Caos Mausoleum

In 2008, the mausoleum of Cao Cao, a famous warlord during the fall of the Han dynasty, had been discovered. However, some historians cast their doubts that the mausoleum is that of Cao Cao's. One in particularly is Hu Juezhao (胡觉照), a history professor at the Xi'an Municipal Party Committee School, who claimed in an interview in 2010 that the mausoleum actually belongs to Yao Xiang.

生平

雄武羌將

姚襄父親姚弋仲是南安羌酋長，在後趙滅前趙後歸降後趙並接受其官爵。而姚襄雄健威武，多才多藝，觀察入微且善於安撫人心，故獲得部眾愛戴和敬重，眾人並因此請求姚弋仲立姚襄為繼承人。姚弋仲起初以姚襄不是長子，並不允許，然請求的百姓很多，姚弋仲才開始給姚襄帶兵。

永和六年（350年），冉閔殺後趙皇帝石鑒，建立冉魏。隨後後趙新興王石祗就於襄國即位為後趙帝，並以姚襄為使持節、驃騎將軍、護烏丸校尉、豫州刺史、新昌公。永和七年（351年），姚襄奉父命領二萬八千騎兵營救正遭冉閔圍攻的石祗，姚弋仲並於出發前作訓誡：「冉閔背棄仁義，屠滅石氏。我受了人家的優厚待遇，就應為其復仇，我卻因年老患病而不能親身去做；你才能比冉閔高出十倍，若果不能擒殺他回來，就不要再來見我了！」姚襄雖然聯同前燕、石琨及襄國守軍大敗冉閔，暫時解了襄國的危機，卻因無法擒得冉閔，遭姚弋仲以一百杖作處罰。

歸降東晉

同年，後趙為冉魏所滅，姚襄隨其父向東晉投降，獲晉廷任命為為持節、平北將軍、都督并州諸軍事、并州刺史、平鄉縣公。次年（352年）姚弋仲去世，死前命諸子在其死後歸降晉室，作晉的忠臣。姚襄接手統率父親部眾，不發布父親去世的消息，並攻下陽平（今山東莘城）、元城（今河北大名縣）及發幹（今山東聊城市東昌府區），駐於碻磝津（今山東省茌平縣西南古益河上）；但不久卻敗給前秦，南走至滎陽（今河南滎陽市）才發喪，後在滎陽與洛陽之間的麻田與前秦軍作戰時，座騎中箭死亡，因姚萇贈馬及援軍趕到才免於被擒。此時姚襄才以五個弟弟為人質，歸降東晉。東晉以姚襄駐屯譙城（今安徽亳州），而姚襄隨後單人匹馬渡過淮河，於壽春（今安徽壽縣）面見豫州刺史謝尚，當時謝尚對其名氣亦有所聽聞，於是撤去衞士，以代表高雅的幅巾接見他。二人一見如故，又因姚襄博學及善於談論，很得江東人士敬重。

同年，姚襄與謝尚一同進攻據守許昌（今河南省許昌市）的後趙豫州牧張遇，但遭前秦丞相苻雄等擊敗，謝尚因大敗而退守淮南，得姚襄棄輜重而護送至芍陂，故此將善後工作都委託給姚襄。謝尚因戰敗而受貶降，及後更被調回京師建康（今江蘇南京市），而當時駐屯歷陽（今安徽和縣）的姚襄亦以當時佔據北方的前秦及前燕皆強盛，無意北伐，反在淮河兩岸大興屯田，訓練將士，不過當時主政的殷浩就要北伐，更忌憚姚襄兵力強盛，不但囚禁姚襄送去當質子的弟弟，更屢次派刺客行刺姚襄，但刺客不能下手，反告訴姚襄實情。後殷浩再暗中派魏憬率兵襲殺他，但魏憬反被姚襄所殺，於是令殷浩更加厭惡姚襄，遷姚襄到梁國的蠡臺，表授他為梁國內史。

叛晉自立

永和九年（353年），殷浩北伐，以姚襄為前軀，而當時姚襄已決心叛離東晉，於是算好殷浩快來到時就假意命部眾乘夜逃遁，其實暗中設伏伏擊殷浩。殷浩聽聞姚襄部眾逃遁，追至山桑（今安徽蒙城縣北）就被姚襄伏兵擊敗，被逼退守譙城，而姚襄就俘殺萬多人，盡收其輜重，南據淮南郡一帶。不久姚襄北屯盱眙（今江蘇盱眙縣），在當地收納流民，令部眾增至七萬人，並分置地方官員，鼓勵農事生產，又遣使到建康狀告殷浩，並作道歉。永和十年（354年），姚襄向前燕歸降。

永和十一年（355年），姚襄因應部眾要求北歸，於是自稱大將軍、大單于，北攻晉冠軍將軍高季，卻為高季所敗。姚襄撫恤散敗的兵眾，重新集結力量，及後乘高季去世而據有許昌。次年，姚襄進攻當時據有洛陽的周成，但用了一個多月都不能攻下，當時長史王亮就勸他放棄進攻，免得被他人有機可乘，危及自己。不過姚襄沒有聽從。然而，桓溫不久就發動北伐，征伐姚襄，姚襄被逼放棄圍城而抵抗桓溫，並在伊水以北的樹林中設下精兵，並聲稱自願歸降，請桓溫稍為退兵。然而桓溫沒有答應，並親身督戰，組以兵陣進攻沿河岸抵抗的姚襄軍，姚襄兵敗而北逃至北芒山。姚襄隨後西逃，桓溫因追不到而放棄。姚襄逃到平陽（今山西臨汾市）時得時為前秦并州刺史的舊部尹赤叛秦歸附，於是據守襄陵（今山西襄汾縣）；同據并州的張平因而攻打姚襄，姚襄雖不敵，但與張平結為兄弟，換取兩者和平。

敗死關中

昇平元年（357年），姚襄謀取關中，先移鎮北屈（今山西吉縣），後進屯杏城（今陝西黃陵縣西南），命姚蘭進攻敷城（今陝西富縣）、姚益及王欽盧聯結關中一帶的羌胡外族，共收得胡漢共五萬多戶。不過姚襄就與時據關中的前秦軍發生衝突，前秦帝苻生遣苻黃眉、苻堅、鄧羌進攻，姚襄堅守不戰。但鄧羌就在其軍壘門外列陣，激得姚襄不聽僧人智通的勸言，親自率眾出戰，最終被鄧羌詐敗誘至三原（今陝西三原縣）。姚襄遭受到鄧羌及苻黃眉的合擊，所乘駿馬「黧眉騧」倒地，姚襄為前秦軍所擒斬，享年二十七歲。其弟姚萇率餘眾投降。苻生後以公爵之禮葬姚襄。

後來，姚萇稱後秦帝時，追諡姚襄為魏武王。

性格特徵

• 姚襄深得人心，如在他大敗給桓溫而北逃時，就有五千多人於當晚拋下妻兒去追隨他。前後幾次敗仗，百姓只要知道他在哪裡就奔赴投靠。當時謠傳姚襄重傷而死，被桓溫俘虜的百姓沒有不痛哭流涕的。姚襄部屬楊亮後來歸降桓溫，桓溫向楊亮詢問姚襄的為人，楊亮的評價是：「神明器宇，孫策之儔，而雄武過之。」

評論

• 楊亮：「神明器宇，孫策之儔，而雄武過之。」

• 姚萇：「吾不如亡兄有四：身長八尺五寸，臂垂過膝，人望而畏之，一也；當十萬之眾，與天下爭衡，望麾而進，前無橫陣，二也；溫古知今，講論道藝，駕馭英雄，收羅儁異，三也；統率大眾，履險若夷，上下咸允，人盡死力，四也。所以得建立功業，策任群賢者，正望算略中一片耳。」

• 呂思勉：「其（姚襄）才略或在苻健之上。然寄居晉地，四面追敵，不如健之入關，有施展之地矣。」

後代

• 姚延定，姚襄孫，姚萇建後秦時封為東城侯。

• 姚詳，姚襄孫，仕姚萇為安遠將軍始平太守。姚興在位期間被赫連勃勃東平將軍鹿奕幹俘殺。

墓葬爭論

2009年12月27日，河南有關方面宣布在安陽發現曹操墓。這一發現，引發許多質疑。

西安市委黨校歷史教授胡覺照接受記者採訪時稱，安陽「曹操墓」實則五胡十六國時期軍閥姚襄墓穴。

注釋