Family background

Zaifeng was born on 12 February of the 9th year of the Guangxu Emperor in the Aisin Gioro clan as the fifth son of Yixuan (Prince Chun). He was the second of Prince Chun's sons who managed to survive into adulthood. His mother was Liugiya Cuiyan, who was a maid in Prince Chun's residence before becoming one of the prince's concubines. Born to a Han bannerman family, her family name was "Liu" (劉) but was later changed to the Manchu-sounding "Liugiya" (劉佳) after she married Prince Chun and was transferred to a Manchu banner.

In 1875, after the Tongzhi Emperor's death, Zaifeng's elder brother, Zaitian, was selected by the Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an to be the new emperor. Zaitian was "adopted" by the empress dowagers as their son, which meant he was no longer nominally Prince Chun's son. He was then enthroned as the Guangxu Emperor. Prince Chun, as the biological father of the reigning emperor, received the highest accolades as well as high rank in the imperial court. In addition, he also had a close relationship with Empress Dowager Cixi. In January 1891, after Prince Chun's death, an eight-year-old Zaifeng immediately inherited his father's princely title and became the second Prince Chun.

In 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, when the armies of the Eight-Nation Alliance occupied Beijing, Prince Chun's fiancée reportedly committed suicide to prevent herself from being raped and humiliated by the foreign invaders.

Life in the government

Around late February or early March 1901, Prince Chun was appointed as an army inspector by the Qing imperial court, which had moved to Xi'an after evacuating Beijing. In June 1901, at the insistence of the foreign powers, the 18-year-old Prince Chun was appointed by as a Special Ambassador to offer regrets on behalf of the Qing government to Germany for the murder of German diplomat Baron von Ketteler. In July, Prince Chun left for Germany by sea and met Kaiser Wilhelm II in Potsdam in September. Although he first planned to subsequently tour around Europe and visit Belgium and London, had had to cancel his plans and return to China prematurely because of health issues of Empress Dowager Cixi.

Empress Dowager Cixi was pleased with how Prince Chun executed his diplomatic mission in Germany. He allegedly refused to kneel in front of the Kaiser even when the Germans insisted; the diplomatic slight was forgiven thanks to the negotiation skills of his adviser, Liang Cheng. In China, however, it was mandatory for foreign ambassadors to kneel in front of the Emperor. Due to his success, Prince Chun was subsequently given several key appointments over the following years. At the same time, Cixi grew wary of Prince Chun because the latter was a favorite of foreign powers. In fact, one reason why Prince Chun took up so many important positions in the imperial court after 1901 was that he was a protégé of the foreign powers, which Cixi was careful not to displease. However, she was as intent as ever on thwarting any challenge to her power, and so Prince Chun clearly posed a problem for her. Cixi saw an opportunity in 1902 on Prince Chun's return from Germany – she ordered him to marry Youlan, the daughter of Ronglu, a conservative politician in the imperial court and a staunch supporter of Cixi. Prince Chun loathed Ronglu because the latter played a leading role in ending the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, and in the subsequent internment of the Guangxu Emperor. However, he still agreed to marry Ronglu's daughter because he felt it was unwise to oppose Cixi. The marriage between Prince Chun and Youlan was an unhappy one. With Prince Chun now firmly tied to her, Cixi no longer viewed him as a threat. When Prince Chun and Youlan's first son, Puyi, was born in 1906, Puyi became a likely heir to the throne. Prince Chun and Youlan had another son, Pujie, and three daughters – Yunying, Yunhe and Yunying.

Regency

The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908. On the same day, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict proclaiming Prince Chun's eldest son, Puyi, as the successor. Puyi was "adopted" as the Guangxu Emperor's son; like the Guangxu Emperor before him, he was no longer nominally his biological father's son. Prince Chun was appointed Prince-Regent to assist the new emperor. Cixi died the following day, ending her 47-year-long control over China, while Prince Chun ruled as regent for the next three years. Prince Chun's first concern was to punish the Beiyang Army general Yuan Shikai, who had betrayed the Guangxu Emperor and supported Ronglu in putting an end to the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898. Prince Chun was prevented from executing his plan of having Yuan Shikai assassinated, but managed to have Yuan dismissed from office and sent home to Henan on an excuse of "curing his foot disease".

Over the next three years from 1909 to 1911, Prince Chun carried out the economic and political reforms that were initiated after the Boxer Rebellion ended in 1901, but he was torn between the conservative (mainly Manchu officials) and reformist (mostly Han Chinese officials) factions in the imperial court. The inexperienced Prince Chun concentrated more power in the hands of a small ruling court which angered bureaucrats on lower levels. He promised a constitution by 1916 with preparatory stages in between. Beginning on 5 February 1909, China held its first provincial assembly and local council elections (a council election was held in Tianjin as early as 1907). 21 provincial assemblies took their seats on 14 October. The vast majority elected were constitutional monarchists with a few crypto-revolutionaries and they turned the assemblies into hotbeds of dissent. Alarmed, the National Assembly, which convened in Beijing on 3 October 1910, had half of its 200 members appointed to balance the other half elected by the provincial assemblies. The provinces sent 98 members to the capital since Xinjiang, the 22nd province, had yet to hold elections to form an assembly due to its extreme underdevelopment. Prince Chun only appointed 96 members. Nevertheless, it was the elected members that dominated the floor and wooed the appointed ones to their side. The National Assembly urged Prince Chun to speed up the constitutional process and create a true parliament so the prince responded by pushing forth the expected deadline to 1913.

The Grand Council was replaced by an Imperial Cabinet led by Prince Qing on 8 May 1911. It dismayed constitutionalists as the Imperial Cabinet was not responsible to the National Assembly and contained seven Manchu imperial kinsmen with only four Han Chinese among its 13 members, breaking a long-standing policy of appointing equal numbers of both ethnicity. More power was concentrated in the hands of the Manchu minority than at any time since the dynasty's early years. The following day, the government announced that it would nationalize major railroads, a policy which infuriated many businessmen who invested heavily in railways. They were told that they would be compensated with only a portion of the amount they invested. This alienated many bourgeoisie and gentry, who started the Railway Protection Movement as a means of opposition while themselves becoming disposed towards revolution.

The period saw the revolutionaries attempting several insurrections to overthrow the Qing dynasty, and there was even one attempt by Wang Jingwei to assassinate Prince Chun in February 1910. Prince Chun did not have the maneuvering talent nor the lust for power of Empress Dowager Cixi, and he proved often indecisive and probably unfit for this troubled period.

In 1910, Prince Chun ousted from Tibet the 13th Dalai Lama, who would not return from India until 1913, whereupon the Dalai Lama declared Tibet independent.

On 10 October 1911, the Wuchang Uprising marked the start of the Xinhai Revolution, which aimed to topple the Qing dynasty and end imperial rule in China. The Qing imperial court was forced to recall back Yuan Shikai, despite Prince Chun's deep aversion for him, as Yuan was the only one capable of suppressing the revolution. Yuan became Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet on 16 November. Prince Chun, now deprived of any real power, stepped down on 6 December 1911, and was replaced by his sister-in-law, Empress Dowager Longyu, as regent. When he returned home that day, he told his family, "Now I am back in the family, and I can finally care for my children". The three years of regency were certainly the most painful years in Prince Chun's life; he never relished power the way Empress Dowager Cixi or Yuan Shikai did, and witnesses say he felt relieved when he left office.

Sir Reginald Johnston, tutor to Puyi, said that upon the Prince's appointment as regent it was already common knowledge that he was incapable of the enormous task ahead of him. He states Chun was:

Life after the Qing dynasty

Even after returning to private life, Prince Chun remained a respected figure, among both the Nationalist and later the Communist parties, who appreciated his peaceful stepping down from power and acceptance of China becoming a republic. Sun Yat-sen even visited him in Beijing in September 1912, during which he congratulated Prince Chun, and the latter formally declared his support for the Republic of China.

After the death of Empress Dowager Longyu in 1913, Prince Chun was put in charge of the small imperial court that remained around his son Puyi (no longer a ruling emperor), and he managed all the court's affairs until 1924 when Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden City. In 1917, when Puyi was briefly restored on the throne by the warlord Zhang Xun, Prince Chun played no significant role, as Zhang Xun's slogan for the restoration was "Do not allow the relatives of the emperor to participate in the government".

Prince Chun lived in the Northern Residence in Beijing until 1928. He spent most of his time in the library reading books on history and newly published magazines. Sometime after 1911, he married another wife, Lady Dengiya, with whom he had several children. His primary consort, Youlan, committed suicide in 1921 by swallowing opium after being publicly scolded by Dowager Consort Duankang (the highest-ranked woman in the imperial court after Empress Dowager Longyu's death in 1913) for the misconduct of her son, Puyi.

In 1928, Prince Chun moved to Tianjin, where he lived in the British and Japanese concessions. In August 1939, he relocated back to the Northern Residence in Beijing when Tianjin was flooded. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Prince Chun was against the establishment of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo, and warned Puyi not to be involved. However, Puyi ignored his advice and was installed by the Japanese as the puppet figurehead ruler of Manchukuo. Prince Chun visited his son thrice in Manchukuo but ostensibly refused to participate in state affairs. Puyi wanted his father to live in Manchukuo but his father refused and returned to Beijing on an excuse that he was ill. At the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when the National Revolutionary Army recovered Beijing from the Japanese, a letter of sympathy was sent to Prince Chun by the Beijing Municipality in recognition of his attitude during the Japanese occupation.

After the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and the Communist Party established the People's Republic of China, Prince Chun was held in high regard by the party's members. However, his son Puyi was arrested and imprisoned for ten years. Prince Chun sold the Northern Residence to the government out of financial difficulties. He also donated his library and art collection to Peking University, and provided relief aid to the victims of the Huai River flooding in 1950.

Prince Chun died on 3 February 1951 in Beijing. Many of his descendants reside in Beijing to this day, including Jin Youzhi, Jin Yuzhang and Jin Yulan. Many have changed their Manchu clan name Aisin Gioro to a Chinese family name Jin (金), which means "gold" ("Aisin" also means "gold" in Manchu).

Names and titles

• Names:

　• Clan name / family name: Aisin Gioro (愛新覺羅 Àixīn Juéluó)

　• Personal name: Zaifeng (載灃 Zǎifēng)

　• Courtesy name: Bohan (伯涵 Bóhán) or Yiyun (亦雲 Yìyún)

　• Pseudonym: Jingyun (靜雲 Jìngyún, literally Silent Cloud). In his older days he chose a new pseudonym Shupi (書癖 Shūpǐ, literally Book Enthusiast).

• Titles:

　• Prince Chun of the First Rank (醇親王 Chún Qīnwáng), simplified to Prince Chun (or Prince Ch'un in Wade–Giles). Zaifeng held this title from 1891 until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911.

　• Prince-Regent (攝政王 Shèzhèng Wáng)

• Other references:

　• Zai Jingyun (載靜雲 Zǎi Jìngyún)

Family

Consorts and Issue:

• Primary consort, of the Gūwalgiya clan (嫡福晉 瓜爾佳氏; 1884 – 30 September 1921), sixth cousin five times removed, personal name Youlan (幼蘭)

　• Puyi, the Xuantong Emperor (宣統皇帝 溥儀; 7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967), first son

　• Pujie (溥傑; 16 April 1907 – 28 February 1994), second son

　• First daughter (1909–1925), personal name Yunying (韞瑛)

　　• Married Runliang (潤良; 1904–1925) of the Daur Gobulo (郭布羅) clan

　• Second daughter (1911–2001), personal name Yunhe (韞和)

　　• Married Zheng Guangyuan (鄭廣元), and had issue (one son, three daughters)

　• Third daughter (1913–1992), personal name Yunying (韞穎)

　　• Married Runqi (潤麒; 1912–2007) of the Daur Gobulo (郭布羅) clan in 1931, and had issue (two sons, one daughter)

• Secondary consort, of the Denggiya clan (側福晉 鄧佳氏; 1896–1942)

　• Fourth daughter (1914–2003), personal name Yunxian (韞嫻)

　　• Married Qifan (琪璠) of the Harqin (喀喇沁) Zhao (趙) clan, and had issue (one son, one daughter)

　• Puqi (溥倛; 9 November 1916 – 29 October 1918), third son

　• Fifth daughter (1917–1998), personal name Yunxin (韞馨)

　　• Married Wan Jiaxi (萬嘉熙), and had issue (three sons, one daughter)

　• Puren (溥任; 21 September 1918 – 10 April 2015), fourth son

　• Sixth daughter (1919–1982), personal name Yunyu (韞娛)

　　• Married Ailan (愛蘭; 1921–2005) of the Manchu Wang clan in 1943, and had issue (one son, four daughters)

　• Seventh daughter (11 September 1921 – 9 August 2004), personal name Yunhuan (韞歡)

　　• Married Qiao Hongzhi (喬宏志; 1919–1960) on 12 February 1950, and had issue (two sons, one daughter)

Ancestry

生平

載灃于清光緒九年（1883年）正月初五日出生于順天府太平湖醇親王府南府內，為醇賢親王奕譞之第五子，母側福晉劉佳氏。其二兄載湉入繼咸豐帝為嗣，繼承同治帝入承大統，是為光緒帝。

光緒十四年（1889年），因原來的府邸成為潛龍邸，全家移居什剎海後海北河沿醇親王府（北府）。光緒十六年（1890年）十一月廿一日，襲封醇親王。

二十七年（1901年）正月，授閱兵大臣。五月，授頭等專使，赴德國為庚子德國駐北京公使克林德被殺一事進行道歉。

三十三年（1907年）五月，授軍機大臣上學習行走。

三十四年（1908年）正月，任軍機大臣。同年十月，因光緒帝駕崩且無嗣，以其長子溥儀入嗣大統，是為宣統帝，同時被授為監國攝政王，代理朝政。

宣統二年（1910年），載灃遭到革命黨人汪精衛、陳璧君等人的密謀暗殺，不過暗殺未取得成功，汪精衛被捕，史稱「銀錠橋案」。同年大清銀行發行的兌換券上，印製載灃肖像。

宣統三年（1911年）12月6日，袁世凱進言隆裕太后，太后命載灃辭去攝政王職位，以醇親王退歸府邸。1912年2月12日，袁世凱迫隆裕太后頒布《宣統退位詔》，清朝滅亡。

民國二十三年（1934年），赴東北滿州國，月餘後返回北京。

1951年初，因多年老病，受感風寒，于2月3日病故，享年68歲。葬于北京西郊福田公墓。

相片爭議

一張婉容兄弟潤良與潤麒之合影，常常被誤認為載灃與溥儀在退位時所攝。

家庭

• 嫡福晉瓜爾佳氏（1884年－1921年），閨名「幼蘭」，慈禧太后的心腹重臣榮祿之女。因受到端康太妃訓斥，而服毒自盡。

　• 長子溥儀（1906年－1967年），乳名「午格」，字「曜之」，號「浩然」，改名「溥浩然」。宣統帝，娶5名妻子，無子女。

　• 次子溥傑（1907年－1994年），乳名「譽格」，字「俊之」，號「秉藩」，改名「溥俊之」。娶嵯峨浩，生兩女。

　• 長女韞瑛（1909年－1925年），乳名「毓格」，字「蕊欣」，號「秉瑛」。嫁潤良，死于急性闌尾炎，無子女。

　• 次女韞龢（1911年－2001年），乳名「碩格」，字「蕊菡」，號「秉熹」，改名「金欣如」。嫁鄭廣元，生一子三女。

　• 第三女韞穎（1913年－1992年），乳名「佩格」，字「蕊秀」，號「秉顥」，改名「金蕊秀」。嫁潤麒，生兩子一女。

• 側福晉鄧佳氏，名號不詳。十八歲時和載灃結婚。

　• 第四女韞嫻（1914年－2003年），乳名「來格」，字「蕊珠」，改名「金韞嫻」。嫁趙琪璠，生一對子女。

　• 第三子溥倛（1915年－1918年）。不滿三歲夭折。

　• 第五女韞馨（1917年－1998年），乳名「悅格」，字「蕊潔」，改名「金蕊潔」。嫁萬嘉熙，生三子一女。

　• 第四子溥任（1918年－2015年），乳名「聯格」，字「友之」，改名「金友之」。娶金瑜庭，生三子兩女。

　• 第六女韞娛（1919年－1982年），乳名「星格」，字「蕊樂」，改名「溥韞娛」。嫁愛蘭，生一子四女。

　• 第七女韞歡（1921年－2004年），小名「姞格」，字「蕊莟」，號「璧月」，改名「金志堅」。嫁喬宏志，生兩子一女。

• 兄弟

載灃有兄弟七人：老大載瀚、老二為光緒帝、老三及老四載洸均早夭、老五係載灃本人、老六載洵（字「仲泉」、號「癡雲」）為清末海軍大臣、老七載濤（字「叔源」、號「野雲」）乃清末軍諮府大臣。載洵、載濤均為清末皇族內閣成員。

評價

• 載濤：載灃是我的胞兄，他的秉性為人，我知道的比較清楚。他遇事優柔寡斷，人都說他忠厚，實則忠厚即無用之別名。他日常生活很有規律，內廷當差謹慎小心，這是他的長處。他做一個承平時代的王爵尚可，若仰仗他來主持國政，應付事變，則決難勝任。

• 周恩來：慈禧太后出于「垂簾聽政」的需要，選定一個3歲的孩子溥儀承繼光緒皇帝，並連帶把無心從政的27歲的載灃推上監國攝政王的高位，這段史實當然不應由載灃負責。載灃執政期間，忠于清朝，盡了最大的努力，而未能阻止中國封建專制制度的結束，這是歷史發展的結果，並非某位個人的過錯。載灃在辛亥革命中的表現是好的，其間他辭去了監國攝政王的職務，並不主張以武力對抗革命，也不反對宣統皇帝「遜位」，這些表現順應時代的潮流和人民的意願，客觀上有利于革命。

• 溥儀：載灃膽小怕事，難堪大任，無法給予兒子壹點保護。

邸宅

邸宅醇王府，西側庭園（明珠花園）後改為宋慶齡公邸，現在以「宋慶齡故居」名義一般公開。東側邸宅部分先後為國家宗教事務局、廄舍、馬場、北京市第二聾啞學校等所用。2010年，學校遷出，現為保護用地。

影視作品

• 《末代皇帝 (電影)》，由鮑皓昕飾演

• 《末代皇帝》，由藍天野飾演

• 《建黨偉業》，由周一圍飾演

• 《辛亥革命》，由李東學飾演

注釋