Early years

Kublai Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan performed a ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River. Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger in accordance with a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Khagan (Mongol emperor) Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei, was enthroned as Khagan in 1229.

After the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of Chinese peasants to flee, which led to a decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani Beki sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned.

The most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Chinese culture. Kublai invited Haiyun, the leading Buddhist monk in North China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold). Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist), and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing. Kublai soon added the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic.

Victory in North China

In 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China. Kublai received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia. During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted the agricultural output of Henan, and increased social welfare spendings after receiving Xi'an. These acts received great acclaim from the Chinese warlords and were essential to the building of the Yuan Dynasty. In 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his Chinese associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward the throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Chinese Confucian-trained officials.

In 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he asked the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan. Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali emperor Duan Xingzhi (段興智) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer the rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there. After Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.

Kublai was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian of the Kingdom of Qocho (1231–1280) the head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum. Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Chinese officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission was abolished. Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke, who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him.

The Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory. Kublai called a conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts. Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).

In 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him. The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states. Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao.

Enthronement and civil war

Kublai received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian plains. Before he reached Mongolia, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum, which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. Kublai and the fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu, opposed this. Kublai's Chinese staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in North China and Manchuria supported his candidacy. Upon returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all the Borjigin lines except that of Jochi. This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on April 15, 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become khan.

This led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongolian capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping and won over several wavering generals. To secure the southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou, but Jia broke his promise and arrested them. Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate. Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu, crowned khan of Chagatai's territory. In the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. Kublai cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan, son of Ögedei Khan. Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just a few months and Li Tan was executed. These armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. The incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to Han Chinese warlords.

Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia. When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation. However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters.

Reign

Great Khan of the Mongols

The mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258), and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. In 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of the Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols in order to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire. When Hulagu died on February 8, 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members.

Kublai Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde. The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime. Kublai also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana, the empress of the Chagatai Khanate, who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death.

Prince Kaidu of the House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin. When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in the east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel. This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died the next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu.

Meanwhile, Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado. Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus.

In 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrender his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy. Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back.

Kublai called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander. Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China. The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.

Kublai renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. When he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, also called Dadu, at modern-day Beijing, there was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?" Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be a legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan. Defections from Kublai's Dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces.

The Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese peoples to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists. The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song, were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took a personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye.

Kublai succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports and canals and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign. Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China. However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258), Sakhalin (1264), Burma (1277), Champa (1282), and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–8), and the invasion of Java (1293) failed.

At the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form a grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances, and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day, and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants.

Kublai's son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids. Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened the Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq.

In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam (dhabihah) or Judaism (kashrut), which offended Mongolian custom. When Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad Fanakati, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor.

Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke, Köchü, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes. The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai. Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.

Emperor of the Yuan dynasty

Kublai Khan considered China his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there. From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. Kublai heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.

Kublai also appointed the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor, giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks. In 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.

In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu (, known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (, also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor). To unify China, Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into the sea and ending the Song dynasty.

Most of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor. This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula. The Central Region (腹裏) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.

Kublai promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of the old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. Kublai decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268. After the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue of the government was the monopoly of salt production.

The Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on. In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation, the currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. It was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins. In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall. It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and the Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterwards he was assassinated.

桑哥 Sangha was a Tibetan. A rich merchant from the Madurai Sultanate, Abu Ali (in Chinese, 孛哈里 Bèihālǐ or 布哈爾 Bùhār), was associated closely with its royal family. After falling out with them, he moved to Yuan China and received a Korean woman as his wife and a job from the Mongol Emperor, the woman was formerly Sangha's wife and her father held the title of 채송년 Chaesongnyeon during the reign of Chungnyeol of Goryeo according to the Dongguk Tonggam, Goryeosa and Liu Mengyan's Zhōng'ānjí (中俺集).

Kublai encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjiào (玄教, "Mysterious Order"). Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Several Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s, who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.

During the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.

Scientific developments and relations with minorities

Thirty Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan. Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol).

Kublai Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi. Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar.

Muslim cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced the knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants.

Muslim physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna's works were also published in China during that period.

Muslim mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.

Kublai brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented the "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang.

Continuation of the restriction upon some Abrahamic ritual practices

Yuan Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish (kashrut) or Muslim (dhabihah) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision was also strictly forbidden.

Warfare and foreign relations

Although Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units. Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates. Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.

Tibet and Xinjiang

In 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted, attacking Sakya monasteries. The Chagatayid khan, Duwa, helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin. Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in the eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu, killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified.

Kublais annexation of Goryeo

Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo (the state on the Korean Peninsula) and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan. Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of the Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns.

Further naval expansion

Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin, where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and the introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, war against the Song Dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding.

Invasions of Japan

Within Kublai's court his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongols, Semu, Koreans, Hui and Chinese people. Because the Wokou extended support to the crumbling Song dynasty, Kublai Khan initiated invasions of Japan.

Kublai Khan twice attempted to invade Japan. It is believed that both attempts were partly thwarted by bad weather or a flaw in the design of ships that were based on river boats without keels, and his fleets were destroyed. The first attempt took place in 1274, with a fleet of 900 ships.

The second invasion occurred in 1281 when Mongols sent two separate forces: 900 ships containing 40,000 Korean, Chinese, and Mongol troops were sent from Masan, while a force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships, each close to long. The fleet was hastily assembled and ill-equipped to cope with maritime conditions. In November, they sailed into the treacherous waters that separate Korea and Japan by . The Mongols easily took over Tsushima Island about halfway across the strait and then Iki Island closer to Kyushu. The Korean fleet reached Hakata Bay on June 23, 1281 and landed its troops and animals, but the ships from China were nowhere to be seen. Mongolian landing forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Akasaka and the Battle of Torikai-Gata. Takezaki Suenaga's samurai attacked the Mongolian army and fought them, as reinforcements led by Shiraishi Michiyasu arrived and defeated the Mongolians, who suffered around 3500 dead.

The samurai warriors, following their custom, rode out against the Mongol forces for individual combat but the Mongols held their formation. The Mongols fought as a united force, not as individuals, and bombarded the samurai with exploding missiles and showered them with arrows. Eventually, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the coastal zone inland to a fortress. The Mongol forces did not chase the fleeing Japanese into an area about which they lacked reliable intelligence. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the Kōan Campaign (弘安の役) or the "Second Battle of Hakata Bay", the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships by the Samurai. The Japanese army was heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with two-meter high walls, and was easily able to repulse the Mongolian forces that were launched against it.

Maritime archaeologist Kenzo Hayashida led the investigation that discovered the wreckage of the second invasion fleet off the western coast of Takashima District, Shiga. His team's findings strongly indicate that Kublai rushed to invade Japan and attempted to construct his enormous fleet in one year, a task that should have taken up to five years. This forced the Chinese to use any available ships, including river boats. Most importantly, the Chinese, under Kublai's control, built many ships quickly in order to contribute to the fleets in both of the invasions. Hayashida theorizes that, had Kublai used standard, well-constructed ocean-going ships with curved keels to prevent capsizing, his navy might have survived the journey to and from Japan and might have conquered it as intended. In October 2011, a wreck, possibly one of Kublai's invasion craft, was found off the coast of Nagasaki. David Nicolle wrote in The Mongol Warlords, "Huge losses had also been suffered in terms of casualties and sheer expense, while the myth of Mongol invincibility had been shattered throughout eastern Asia." He also wrote that Kublai was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death and the unanimous agreement of his advisers not to invade prevented a third attempt.

File:MokoShuraiE-Kotoba I.jpg|Mongol soldiers, second version

File:MokoShuraiE-Kotoba III.jpg|Mongol ships, second version

File:Sir Henry Yule illustration of Yuan dynasty war junk.jpg|Painting of a 14th-century prized Yuan dynasty junk

Invasions of Vietnam

Kublai Khan invaded Đại Việt (now Vietnam) three times, each repelled by the ruling Trần dynasty. The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of Fujian and migrated to Đại Việt under Trần Kinh 陳京 (Chén Jīng), where their mixed-blooded descendants later established the Trần dynasty and came to rule Đại Việt; despite many intermarriages between the Trần and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Trần Lý and Trần Thừa, some of the mixed-blood descendants of the clan could still speak Chinese, as evidenced when a Yuan dynasty envoy had a meeting with the Chinese-speaking Trần prince Trần Quốc Tuấn (later Supreme Commander Trần Hưng Đạo) in 1282.

The first incursion was in 1257, but the Trần dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty between the Mongols and Đại Việt in the twelfth lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Trần dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi. However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Trần king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Đại Việt court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Đại Việt to demand that the Trần king surrender his land and his kingship. The Trần king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.

After his first failure, Kublai wanted to install Nhân Tông's brother Trần Ích Tắc – who had defected to the Mongols – as king of Annam (Đại Việt?), but hardship in the Yuan's supply base in Hunan and Kaidu's invasion forced Kublai to abandon his plans.

The second Mongol invasion of Đại Việt began late in 1284, when the Mongol Yuan forces under the command of Toghan, the prince of Kublai Khan, crossed the border and quickly occupied Thăng Long (now Hanoi) in January 1285, after the victorious battle of Omar in Vạn Kiếp (north east of Hanoi). At the same time Sogetu, second in command of the Yuan army, moved from Champa northward and rapidly marched to Nghe An in the north central region of Vietnam, where the army of the Trần dynasty under general Trần Kien was defeated and surrendered to him. However, the Trần king and the commander-in-chief Trần Hưng Đạo changed their tactics from defence to attack and struck against the Mongols. In April, General Trần Quang Khải defeated Sogetu in Chương Dương and the Trần king won a battle in Tây Kết, where Sogetu died. Soon after, general Trần Nhật Duật also won a battle in Hàm Tử (now Hưng Yên) and Toghan was defeated by General Trần Hưng Đạo. Thus Kublai failed in his first attempt to invade Đại Việt. Toghan hid himself inside a bronze pipe to avoid being killed by the Đại Việt archers; this act brought humiliation upon the Mongol Empire and Toghan himself.

The third Mongol invasion began in 1287. It was better organized than the previous effort; a large fleet and plentiful stocks of food were used. The Mongol Yuan forces, under the command of Toghan, moved to Vạn Kiếp from the north west and met the infantry and cavalry of Kublai's Kipchak commander Omar (coming by another way along the Red River) and quickly won the battle. The naval fleet rapidly attained victory in Vân Đồn near Hạ Long Bay. However, the Đại Việt General Trần Khánh Dư managed to intercept and captured the heavy, fully stocked cargo ships, filled with food and supplies for Toghan's army. As a result, the Mongolian army in Thăng Long suffered an acute shortage of food. With no news about the supply fleet, Toghan ordered his army to retreat to Vạn Kiếp. The Đại Việt army began their general offensive and recaptured a number of locations occupied by the Mongols. Groups of Đại Việt infantry were ordered to attack the Mongols in Vạn Kiếp. Toghan had to split his army into two and retreated in 1288.

In early April 1288 the naval fleet, led by Omar and escorted by infantry, fled home along the Bạch Đằng river. As bridges and roads were destroyed and attacks were launched by Đại Việt troops, the Mongols reached Bạch Đằng without an infantry escort. Đại Việt's small flotilla engaged in battle and pretended to retreat. The Mongols eagerly pursued the Đại Việt troops only to fall into their pre-arranged battlefield. Thousands of small Đại Việt boats quickly appeared from both banks, launched a fierce attack that broke the Mongols' combat formation. The Mongols, meeting such a sudden and strong attack, in panic tried to withdraw to the sea. The Mongols' boats were halted, and many were damaged and sank. At that time, a number of fire rafts quickly rushed toward the Mongols, who were frightened and jumped down to reach the banks where they were dealt a heavy blow by an army led by the Trần king and Trần Hưng Đạo.

The Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Đại Việt's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Lạng Sơn. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Trần king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Trần king, which continued to the end of the Yuan dynasty.

Southeast Asia and South Seas

Three expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom and established their government. Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Pagan finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s. Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.

Kublai Khan maintained close relations with Siam, in particular with prince Mangrai of Chiangmai and king Ram Khamheng of Sukhothai. In fact, Kublai encouraged them to attack the Khmers after the Thais were being pushed southwards from Nanchao. This happened after king Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire refused to pay tribute to the Mongols. Jayavarman VIII was so insistent on not having to pay tribute to Kublai that he had Mongol envoys imprisoned. These attacks from the Siamese eventually weakened the Khmer Empire. The Mongols then decided to venture south into Cambodia in 1283 by land from Champa. They were able to conquer Cambodia by 1284. Cambodia effectively became a vassal state by 1285 when Jayavarman VIII was finally forced to pay tribute to Kublai.

During the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops. Nevertheless, by 1294, the year that Kublai died, the Thai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Chiang Mai had become vassal states of the Yuan dynasty.

Europe

Under Kublai, direct contact between East Asia and Europe was established, made possible by Mongol control of the central Asian trade routes and facilitated by the presence of efficient postal services. In the beginning of the 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians – merchants, travelers, and missionaries of different orders – made their way to China. The presence of Mongol power allowed large numbers of Chinese, intent on warfare or trade, to travel to other parts of the Mongol Empire, all the way to Rus, Persia, and Mesopotamia.

Africa

In the 13th century, the Sultanate of Mogadishu through its trade with medieval China had acquired enough of a reputation in Asia to attract the attention of Kublai Khan. According to Marco Polo, the Mongol Emperor sent an envoy to Mogadishu to spy out the Sultanate but the delegation was captured and imprisoned. Kublai Khan then sent another envoy to treat for the release of the earlier Mongol delegation sent to Africa.

Capital City

Xanadu

After Kublai Khan was proclaimed Khagan at his residence in Xanadu on May 5, 1260, he began to organize the country. Zhang Wenqian, a central government official, was sent by Kublai in 1260 to Daming where unrest had been reported in the local population. A friend of Zhang's, Guo Shoujing, accompanied him on this mission. Guo was interested in engineering, was an expert astronomer and skilled instrument maker, and he understood that good astronomical observations depended on expertly made instruments. Guo began to construct astronomical instruments, including water clocks for accurate timing and armillary spheres that represented the celestial globe. Turkestani architect Ikhtiyar al-Din, also known as "Igder", designed the buildings of the city of the Khagan, Khanbaliq (Chinese Dadu). Kublai also employed foreign artists to build his new capital; one of them, a Newar named Araniko, built the White Stupa that was the largest structure in Khanbaliq/Dadu.

Zhang advised Kublai that Guo was a leading expert in hydraulic engineering. Kublai knew the importance of water management for irrigation, transport of grain, and flood control, and he asked Guo to look at these aspects in the area between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River. To provide Dadu with a new supply of water, Guo found the Baifu spring in Mount Shen and had a channel built to move water to Dadu. He proposed connecting the water supply across different river basins, built new canals with sluices to control the water level, and achieved great success with the improvements he made. This pleased Kublai and Guo was asked to undertake similar projects in other parts of the country. In 1264 he was asked to go to Gansu to repair the damage that had been caused to the irrigation systems by the years of war during the Mongol advance through the region. Guo travelled extensively along with his friend Zhang taking notes of the work needed to be done to unblock damaged parts of the system and to make improvements to its efficiency. He sent his report directly to Kublai Khan.

Nayans rebellion

During the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria. Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Chang'an and Shanxi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria. The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.

Threatened by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Nayan, a fourth-generation descendant of one of Genghis Khan's brothers, either Temüge or Belgutei, instigated a revolt in 1287. (More than one prince named Nayan existed and their identity is confused.) Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia. Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Qasar, joined Nayan's rebellion, and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.

The rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes. Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. However, Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in the Khangai Mountains and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.

Widespread but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family. Kublai harshly punished the darughachi appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria. This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.

Later years

Kublai Khan dispatched his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to ensure his claim to Ikh Khorig, where Genghis was buried, a sacred place strongly protected by the Kublaids. Bayan was in control of Karakorum and was re-establishing control over surrounding areas in 1293, so Kublai's rival Kaidu did not attempt any large-scale military action for the next three years. From 1293 on, Kublai's army cleared Kaidu's forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.

After his wife Chabi died in 1281, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui. Only two of Kublai's daughters are known by name; he may have had others. Unlike the formidable women of his grandfather's day, Kublai's wives and daughters were an almost invisible presence. Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Zhenjin, who became the head of the Zhongshu Sheng and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Zhenjin had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Zhenjin. Zhenjin died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).

Kublai became increasingly despondent after the deaths of his favorite wife and his chosen heir Zhenjin. The failure of the military campaigns in Vietnam and Japan also haunted him. Kublai turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due to the loss of his family, his poor health and advancing age. Kublai tried every medical treatment available, from Korean shamans to Vietnamese doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail. At the end of 1293, the emperor refused to participate in the traditional New Years' ceremony. Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjin's son Temür, who would become the next Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the second ruler of the Yuan dynasty. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and on February 18, 1294, he died at the age of 78. Two days later, the funeral cortège took his body to the burial place of the khans in Mongolia.

Family

Wives and sons

In the 13th century, Marco Polo recorded that Kublai had twenty-nine main consorts, five-thousand eight hundred wives and nearly 36,000 of main concubines. Kublai first married Tegulen but she died very early. Then he married Chabi of the Khongirad, who was his most beloved empress. After Chabi's death in 1281, Kublai married Chabi's young cousin, Nambui, presumably in accordance with Chabi's wish.

Principal wives (first and second ordos):

• Tegülün Khatun (died before 1260) — daughter of Tuolian, grandson of Alchi Noyan (Anchen) from Khongirad

• Empress Chabi (b. 1227, m. 1239, d. 1281) — daughter of Alchi Noyan (Anchen) from Khongirad

• * Dorji (b. c. 1240, d. 1263) — the director of the Secretariat and head of the Bureau of Military Affairs from 1261, but was sickly and died young.

• * Crown Prince Zhenjin (1243 – 1285) — Prince of Yan (燕王)

• * Manggala (c. 1249–1280) — Prince of Anxi (安西王)

• * Nomughan (d. 1301) — Prince of Beiping (北平王)

• Empress Nambui (m. 1283) — daughter of Nachen, brother of Empress Chabi

• * Tamachi

Wives from third ordo:

• Empress Talahai (塔剌海皇后)

• Empress Nuhan (奴罕皇后)

Wives from fourth ordo:

• Empress Bayaujin (伯要兀真皇后) — daughter of Boraqchin from Bayauts

• * Toghon — Prince of Zhennan (鎮南王)

• Empress Kökelün (阔阔伦皇后)

Concubines:

• Lady Babahan (八八罕妃子)

• Lady Sabuhu (撒不忽妃子)

• Qoruqchin Khatun — daughter of Qutuqu (brother of Toqto'a Beki) from Merkits

• * Qoridai — Commander of Möngke in Tibet

• Dörbejin Khatun — from Dörben tribe

• * Hügechi (d. 1271) — Prince of Liang (梁王)

• * Aqruqchi (d. 1306) — Prince of Xiping (奥鲁赤)

• Hüshijin Khatun — daughter of Boroqul Noyan from Hüshin tribe

• * Ayachi (fl. 1324) — Commander of Hexi Corridor

• * Kököchü (fl. 1313) — Prince of Ning (宁王)

• A lady

• * Qutluq Temür (fl. 1324)

• Asujin Khatun — probably from Asud tribe

• *Qutlugh Kelmysh Beki married the king Chungnyeol of Goryeo and became empress of the Goryeo.

Daughters

• A daughter — Buddhist nun, buried in Tanzhe Temple

• Grand Princess of Zhao, Yuelie (赵国大長公主) — married to Ay Buqa, Prince of Zhao (趙王)

• Princess Ulujin (吾魯真公主) — married to Buqa from Ikires clan

• Grand Princess of Lu, Öljei (鲁国长公主) — married to Ulujin Küregen from Khongirad clan, Prince of Lu

• Grand Princess of Lu, Nangiajin (鲁国大长公主) — married to Ulujin Küregen from Khongirad clan, Prince of Lu, then after his death in 1278, to his brother Temür and after his death in 1290 to Manzitai, his brother.

Poetry

Kublai was a prolific writer of Chinese poetry, though most of his works haven't survived. Only one Chinese poem written by him is included in the Selection of Yuan Poetry (元詩選), titled 'Inspiration recorded while enjoying the ascent to Spring Mountain'. It was translated into Mongolian by the Inner Mongolian scholar B.Buyan in the same style as classical Mongolian poetry and transcribed into Cyrillic by Ya.Ganbaatar. It is said that once in spring Kublai Khan went to worship at a Buddhist temple at the Summer Palace in western Khanbaliq (Beijing) and on his way back ascended Longevity Hill (Tumen Nast Uul in Mongolian), where he was filled with inspiration and wrote this poem.

This is translated:

Legacy

Kublai's seizure of power in 1260 pushed the Mongol Empire into a new direction. Despite his controversial election, which accelerated the disunity of the Mongols, Kublai's willingness to formalize the Mongol realm's symbiotic relation with China brought the Mongol Empire to international attention. Kublai and his predecessors' conquests were largely responsible for re-creating a unified, militarily powerful China. The Mongol rule of Tibet, Manchuria, and the Mongolian steppe from a capital at modern Beijing were the precedents for the Qing dynasty's Inner Asian Empire.

In popular culture

• Kublai and Shangdu or Xanadu are the subject of various later artworks, including the English Romantic Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "Kubla Khan", in which Coleridge makes Xanadu a symbol of mystery and splendor (written in October 1797 while under the influence of opium).

• In the 1938 film The Adventures of Marco Polo, George Barbier plays the role of Kublai Khan.

• Kabli Khan, a 1963 Indian Hindi-language musical action film by K. Amarnath which stars Ajit Khan in the titular role, presents a fictionalized narrative of a ruler seemingly based on Kublai Khan.

• Kublai Khan is referenced in the Rush song "Xanadu", on their 1977 album A Farewell To Kings.

• Kublai Khan is portrayed by Ying Ruocheng in the 1982 miniseries Marco Polo.

• Kublai Khan is a character in the serial Marco Polo in the first series of British sci-fi show 『』Doctor Who』』.

• Kublai Khan plays a significant role in the 2014 Netflix production Marco Polo, in which he is depicted by Benedict Wong.

• The Government of Mongolia celebrated Kublai Khan's 800th birthday on 15 September 2015 to honour and value his contribution to Mongolian history and promote research works related to Mongolian history.

• Kublai Khan is portrayed by Hu Jun in the 2013 Chinese television series The Legend of Kublai Khan.

• Kublai Khan is portrayed by Kim Myeong-Kuk in the 2012 Korean television series God of War.

• Kublai Khan plays a role in Jin Yong's work The Return of the Condor Heroes.

• Kublai Khan is also mentioned in the game Ghost of Tsushima as the cousin of the main villain Khotun Khan

• Kublai Khan is featured as a leader in the game Civilization VI, with players having the option to use him to lead either Mongolia or China.

生平經歷

大蒙古國（蒙古帝國）時期

出生與成長

成吉思汗十年八月二十八日（1215年9月23日），忽必烈生于漠北草原。忽必烈是成吉思汗第四子拖雷與正妻唆魯禾帖尼所生的嫡次子（蒙哥是嫡長子，旭烈兀是嫡三子，阿里不哥是嫡四子）。忽必烈長大後，「仁明英睿，事太后至孝，尤善撫下。」忽必烈年少有大志、重視漢地的治理，早在1244年，年輕的忽必烈便招攬了搜羅了各方的文人、儒生、舊臣等，形成了一個屬于自己的幕僚團。

受到重用

1251年7月1日（農曆辛亥年六月十一日），忽必烈長兄蒙哥經忽里台選舉成為大蒙古國大汗（于1264年被忽必烈追尊為元憲宗），即位後不久即任命忽必烈負責總領漠南漢地事務。忽必烈設置金蓮川幕府，並在這段時間內任用了大批漢族幕僚和儒士，如劉秉忠、許衡、姚樞、郝經、張文謙、竇默、趙璧等等，並提出了「行漢法」的主張。儒士元好問和張德輝還請求忽必烈接受「儒教大宗師」的稱號，忽必烈悅而受之。忽必烈尊崇儒學，「聖度優宏，開白炳烺，好儒術，喜衣冠，崇禮讓。」

1252年六月，忽必烈前往草原覲見蒙哥汗，奉命率軍征雲南地區的大理國，為繼續進攻南宋作跳板。1253年八月，忽必烈率軍從陝西出發，于1254年1月2日（農曆十二月十二日）攻克大理城，國王段興智投降，大理國滅，雲南地區併入大蒙古國版圖。1256年，段興智前往漠北和林皇宮覲見蒙哥，被蒙哥任命為大理總管，子孫世襲。從1254年忽必烈奉蒙哥之命滅大理國，到1382年駐守雲南的元朝梁王把匝剌瓦爾密兵敗自殺、大理總管段世戰敗歸降明軍，蒙古族建立的政權統治雲南地區長達128年。

1256年夏天，蒙哥以南宋扣押蒙古使者為理由，對南宋宣戰，並布置了三路大軍，親自率領西路軍，以忽必烈為中路軍統帥。忽必烈率軍抵達河南汝南，繼續向南宋進發，並派命楊惟中、郝經宣撫江淮。1259年9月3日（農曆八月十五日），忽必烈統領中路軍渡過淮河，攻入南宋境內，隨後一路向南，在湖北開闢新的戰場，進攻長江中游的鄂州。

1259年8月11日，蒙哥在四川合州釣魚山病逝。1259年9月19日，在四川的忽必烈異母弟末哥派來的使者向忽必烈宣布蒙哥去世的消息，並請忽必烈北歸參與忽里台大會，以便爭取汗位繼承權。忽必烈則認為「吾奉命南來，豈可無功遽還？」于是進攻南宋，並多次獲勝，後來，忽必烈的正妻察必派使者密報，阿里不哥已經派阿藍答兒在開平附近調兵，脫里赤在燕京附近徵集民兵，催促忽必烈早日北還。1259年11月17日，儒臣郝經上《班師議》，陳述必須立即退兵的理由，堅定了忽必烈退兵北返的決心。

忽必烈聲稱要進攻南宋首都臨安，留大將繼續對鄂州的圍攻，增加對南宋的軍事壓力，元憲宗九年閏十一月二日（1259年12月17日），南宋丞相賈似道派使者請和，約定南宋割地求和，並且送歲幣，忽必烈于是在當日撤兵北返，元憲宗九年閏十一月二十日（1260年1月4日），忽必烈率軍抵達燕京（今北京市），解散了脫里赤徵集的民兵，「民心大悅」。忽必烈率軍在燕京近郊駐紮，度過整個冬天，並積極和諸王聯絡，準備在1260年春天召開庫力台大會，舉行登基大典。

自立為汗

庚申年三月二十四日（1260年5月5日），忽必烈在部分宗王和大臣擁立下于自己的封地開平（後稱上都，今內蒙古多倫縣北石別蘇木）自立為「大蒙古國皇帝」（即蒙古帝國大汗的漢語稱謂），庚申年四月四日（1260年5月15日），忽必烈發布稱帝的即位詔書《皇帝登寶位詔》，在詔書中，他自稱為「朕」，稱他的哥哥元憲宗蒙哥（1251—1259年在位）為「先皇」。

中統元年五月十九日（1260年6月29日），忽必烈發布《中統建元詔》，正式建年號「中統」。

庚申年（1260年）農曆四月，其弟阿里不哥在哈拉和林城西按坦河被部分宗王和大臣擁立為大蒙古國大汗。幼弟阿里不哥與忽必烈為此發動戰爭爭奪汗位，雙方戰爭時斷時續，一共持續了四年之久。忽必烈于庚申年三月二十四日（1260年5月5日）自立為汗，又稱漢文的「皇帝」，以招攬漢族知識分子歸心，一部分漢族知識分子果然對此表示讚許，讚美忽必烈「既以正立，一時豪傑雲從景附，全制本國，奄有中夏，挾輔遼右、白霫、樂浪、玄菟、穢貊、朝鮮，面左燕雲、常代，控引西夏、秦隴、吐蕃、雲南，則玉燭金甌，未為玷缺。藩牆不穴，根本強固，倍半于金源，五倍于契丹。」

1260年忽必烈稱帝後，控制了漠南草原，以及原金朝和西夏故地，吐蕃，雲南，西域東部等地區，對阿里不哥實施經濟控制。阿里不哥控制的則是漠北草原和西域西北部地區，面對匱乏的物資最終無以為繼。1264年忽必烈最終迫使阿里不哥投降，完全控制蒙古帝國的東部、原本屬于大汗直轄領地的大部分地區。阿里不哥歸降忽必烈後，忽必烈赦免了他和跟隨的諸王，只是處死了他的眾多謀臣。。阿里不哥失敗後鬱鬱寡歡，于1266年去世。

1264年8月21日（忽必烈中統五年七月二十八日）阿里不哥投降後，忽必烈實際管轄的政治版圖包括（古今地名對照）：中原地區（位于長城以南、秦嶺淮河以北）、東北地區（包括整個黑龍江流域）、朝鮮半島北部、漠南漠北蒙古草原全境（內蒙古和外蒙古地區），西伯利亞南部地區、西域大部分地區（今新疆東部和南部）、吐蕃地區（包括今青海、西藏、四川西部等地）、以及雲南地區等地。

至元元年八月十六日（1264年9月7日），忽必烈發布《至元改元詔》，取《易經》「至哉坤元」之義，改「中統五年」為「至元元年」。

完善官制

庚申年四月初一日（1260年5月12日），忽必烈立中書省，以中書省為最高行政機關，行使宰相職權，以王文統為平章政事，張文謙為中書左丞。

中統四年五月六日（1263年6月13日），忽必烈立樞密院，以樞密院為中央最高軍事管理機關，以燕王真金守中書令，兼判樞密院事。

至元元年（1264年），忽必烈立總制院，以總制院統領全國宗教事務並管轄吐蕃地區，以國師八思巴領之。至元二十五年（1288年），尚書省右丞相桑哥認為總制院職責重大，故向忽必烈奏請根據唐朝時期在宣政殿接待吐蕃使者的緣故，改名為宣政院。忽必烈同意，並任命桑哥和脫因為宣政院使。

至元五年七月四日（1268年8月13日），忽必烈立御史台，以御史台為最高監察機關，以右丞相塔察兒為御史大夫，以張雄飛為侍御史。

元朝時期

建立元朝

至元八年十一月十五日（1271年12月18日），因劉秉忠之勸，忽必烈發布《建國號詔》，取《易經》「大哉乾元」之義，建立「大元」國號，其自身亦從大蒙古國皇帝（大汗）變為大元皇帝，元朝正式建立。

統一中國

元軍延續自1268年秋天以來的攻勢繼續圍困襄陽，將襄陽和樊城分隔開來，至元十年正月九日（1273年1月29日），在回回炮的助攻下，元軍將領阿裏海牙攻克樊城，襄陽徹底成為孤城，元世祖降詔諭襄陽守將呂文煥，阿裏海牙親自到城下勸降呂文煥，保証呂文煥和城中軍民的安全，呂文煥猶疑未決。于是阿裏海牙和呂文煥折箭為誓擔保，呂文煥感泣，至元十年二月二十四日（1273年3月14日），呂文煥和兒子出城投降，歸順元朝。元軍經過接近五年時間包圍，最終取得襄陽。但是以後的進展則相當順利。

至元十一年六月十五日（1274年7月20日），忽必烈向行中書省及蒙古、漢軍萬戶千戶軍士發布問罪于宋的詔書《興師征南詔》。

至元十一年（1274年）農曆七月，忽必烈發布《下江南檄》，派伯顏統率大軍討伐南宋，並告誡伯顏要學習曹彬不殺平江南。伯顏後來取臨安，的確做到了忽必烈的要求。

至元十三年正月十八日（1276年2月4日），伯顏率領大軍攻陷南宋首都臨安（今杭州），宋恭帝派遣使者給元軍統帥伯顏奉上傳國玉璽和降表，在降表中宋恭帝為忽必烈上尊號大元仁明神武皇帝，元軍俘虜5歲的宋恭帝和謝太皇太后，以及南宋宗室和大臣，滅南宋。

至元十三年二月十一日（1276年2月27日），忽必烈發布《歸附安民詔》，詔諭江南一帶新附府州司縣官吏士民軍卒人等，穩定江南社會秩序，安定江南士人和百姓之心。

逃離臨安的部分大臣陸秀夫等人，先後扶持宋端宗，宋帝昺，建立海上流亡政權，在東南沿海一帶繼續和元軍對抗。至元十六年二月六日（1279年3月19日），在厓山海戰中，元軍將領張弘范擊敗南宋海軍，南宋丞相陸秀夫挾8歲的小皇帝「宋帝昺」跳海而死，不少後宮和大臣亦相繼跳海自殺。《宋史》記載七日後，十餘萬具屍體浮海。南宋殘餘的最後一支抵抗力量選擇了慘烈的終結，至此，元朝統一海內，結束了中國自安史之亂以來520多年的分裂局面。

晚年及逝世

1281年3月20日，忽必烈愛妻察必皇后去世。1286年1月5日，皇太子真金去世，連續幾年的時間裡，愛妻和愛子的先後去世，使忽必烈悲痛不已。此外，忽必烈晚年飽受肥胖與痛風病痛之苦。過度飲酒也損害了他的健康。

至元三十一年正月二十二日（1294年2月18日），忽必烈於大都皇宮紫檀殿去世，享壽七十九歲，在位三十五年。忽必烈葬于起輦谷。

忽必烈去世後，在顧命大臣伯顏等人的擁戴下，其孫鐵穆耳于1294年5月10日在上都繼承皇位，是為元成宗。1303年，元成宗與西北諸王達成和議，西北的四大汗國重新承認元朝的宗主國地位。

蒙古帝國的分裂

四大汗國的形成

因為1260年忽必烈和阿里不哥爭位導致蒙古帝國表面上維持統一，實際上已經分裂，帝國西部為四大汗國實際控制，而帝國東部為忽必烈實際控制。趁著忽必烈和阿里不哥的內戰，西北地區的欽察汗國、察合台汗國、窩闊台汗國紛紛自立，此時尚在西亞進行西征的旭烈兀也準備自帝一方，不論忽必烈還是阿里不哥都只得到一部分宗王支持，沒有召開成吉思汗四子嫡系後裔參加的「忽里勒臺」（決定繼承人的大會），忽必烈不被廣泛承認，于是，忽必烈將大汗在西亞的直轄地（阿姆河以西直到埃及邊境）封給旭烈兀換取旭烈兀的支持，旭烈兀建立伊兒汗國（其實旭烈兀留在西亞，忽必烈也沒辦法，但忽必烈給了旭烈兀統治的合法性）。忽必烈將大汗在中亞的直轄地（阿爾泰山以西直到阿姆河的農耕和城郭地區）封給察合台汗阿魯忽換取阿魯忽的支持。而欽察汗國早在元定宗貴由和元憲宗蒙哥統治時期已經取得實際上基本獨立的地位。

後蒙古時期的黃金家族內戰

1264年8月21日，阿里不哥向忽必烈投降。勝利之後忽必烈立即向各系兀魯思派去急使，召他們東赴蒙古草原，重新召開忽里台大會。忽必烈重開忽里台的目的，是因為考慮到中統元年三月二十四日倉促即位于開平，沒有四大兀魯思的代表參加，不符合成吉思汗的扎撒（蒙古語「軍律」、「法規」之意），故而準備依照傳統慣例，在祖先發祥地斡難---怯綠漣之域召開由各系宗王參加的忽里台，重新確立自己的大汗地位，並借這次大會扼制帝國分裂的趨勢。

欽察汗別兒哥、察合台汗阿魯忽和伊兒汗旭烈兀（忽必烈之弟）一致同意東來赴會。元世祖也向窩闊台汗海都派去了急使，但海都拒絕前來。當然，這次原定于至元四年（1267年）召開的忽里台沒能如約舉行，主要是因為各汗國之間隨後爆發戰爭，以及在此後一年多時間裡原本同意參加忽里台的阿魯忽、旭烈兀、別兒哥三位汗王先後去世（旭烈兀1265年去世，別兒哥、阿魯忽1266年去世，他們不可能參加1267年的忽里台）。但窩闊台汗海都的抗命已經明白無誤地表明了分裂意圖，忽必烈聲稱的大汗之位未獲公認，成吉思汗及窩闊台汗創立的蒙古帝國處于分崩離析的邊緣。

1269年，欽察汗國、窩闊台汗國與察合台汗國召開塔拉斯河庫里爾台大會，達成了協議，共同反對拖雷家族控制的大汗直轄地（即忽必烈的實際控制區）和伊兒汗國（旭烈兀家族控制區，忽必烈的唯一支持者），並協議劃分了各自在阿姆河以北地區的勢力範圍。塔拉斯河庫里爾台大會標誌著大蒙古國的實質分裂和解體，從此察合台汗國和窩闊台汗國脫離了大蒙古國，與掌控蒙古帝國東部的拖雷系家族分頭發展。察合台汗國和窩闊台汗國對此後數十年中亞和西亞歷史的發展產生了深遠的影響。

窩闊台汗海都一直和忽必烈敵對，企圖確立自己為大汗之位的繼承人。終元世祖忽必烈一朝，元朝和窩闊台汗國、察合台汗國征戰不休，直到元成宗時期才徹底解決西北問題。

政治成就

由大蒙古國過渡到元朝

大蒙古國時期的歷任大汗，雖然經由對遼、金故地的征服，與漢文明一直有接觸，也往往對漢文化表示接納，蒙古貴族卻大多數反對建立一個漢式的政府；忽必烈對其在漢地的領地則相當重視，並且花費了時間去了解漢人的治國思想和儒家文化，最終以自己的領地開平為中心，建立起了一個漢式的行政中心，其後忽必烈在試圖爭取整個蒙古帝國統治權的同時，一直沒有放棄嘗試讓漢人接受他作為一個中國皇帝，並為此做了一系列漢化努力。

建立太廟

忽必烈贏取漢人接受其統治的第一個措施便是效仿漢人的典章制度，將「大蒙古國」的歷史和皇族「漢化」，其中一個顯著做法就是建立太廟，按照中原王朝的傳統為大蒙古國的歷任大汗確立廟號，追尊謚號。

• 中統四年（1263年）農曆三月，忽必烈下詔在燕京（後來改稱大都）建立太廟。至元元年（1264年）十月，初定太廟七室神主。

• 至元二年農曆十月十四日（1265年11月23日），忽必烈祭祀太廟，為皇祖成吉思汗上廟號太祖。

• 至元三年（1266年）九月，太廟始作八室神主。十月，太廟建成。丞相安童、伯顏建議制定尊謚廟號，忽必烈命平章政事趙璧等集議，制尊謚廟號，定為八室，為大蒙古國的前四位帝王成吉思汗、窩闊台（元太宗）、貴由（元定宗）、蒙哥（元憲宗）上廟號和謚號，為他們的皇后上謚號；並追尊也速該、朮赤、察合台三人為皇帝，也為他們上廟號和謚號，並為拖雷（已經于1251年被追尊為皇帝）改謚號為景襄皇帝，並將他們四人的正妻追謚為皇后，也上謚號。太廟八室，這八位和他們的妻子的神主各居一室。

這些做法有效地吸引了漢族謀士和儒生參與忽必烈的新政權，《劍橋中國史——遼西夏金元》認為，這一系列做法極大地幫助忽必烈鞏固了蒙古族政權在漢地的統治。

定都大都

蒙古帝國的首都，大汗的汗庭處于蒙古高原上的和林哈拉。忽必烈掌控蒙古帝國東部以後，逐步建立了兩都制，並最終定都大都，將政權的統治中心移到了漢地文化更加發達的地區，有利于取得漢族謀士和蒙古貴族之間的平衡。

1215年5月31日，成吉思汗率大軍攻克金中都（今北京市）。1217年，太師、國王木華黎改中都為燕京。燕京即為後來兩都制中的中都。

1256年，忽必烈命劉秉忠在開平（今中國內蒙古自治區錫林郭勒盟正藍旗多倫縣西北閃電河畔）建立王府，忽必烈在此建立了著名的「金蓮川幕府」。中統四年五月九日（1263年6月16日），忽必烈下詔升開平府為上都。

中統五年八月十四日（1264年9月5日），忽必烈發布《建國都詔》，改燕京（今北京市）為中都，定為陪都，兩都制正式形成。

至元四年正月三十日（1267年2月25日），忽必烈由上都遷都到中都，定中都為首都，忽必烈遷都中都後，居住于中都城外的金代離宮——大寧宮內，並隨即在中都的東北部，以大寧宮所在的瓊華島為中心開始了新宮殿和都城的規劃興建工作，上都成為陪都。

至元九年二月三日（1272年3月4日），忽必烈將中都改名為大都（突厥語稱汗八里，帝都之意），元大都包括南城（金中都舊城）和北城（元大都新城），兩者的城牆「僅隔一水」。

至元十一年正月初一（1274年2月9日），宮闕告成，元世祖忽必烈首次在大都皇宮正殿大明殿舉行朝會，接受皇太子、諸王、百官以及高麗國王王禃所派使節的朝賀。

頒定律法

至元二十八年五月二十一日（1291年6月18日），忽必烈下詔頒布元朝第一部全國性的法律典籍《至元新格》。

開疆拓土與對外戰爭

忽必烈統一中國後，元朝疆域空前遼闊。「自封建變為郡縣，有天下者，漢、隋、唐、宋為盛，然幅員之廣，咸不逮元。漢梗于北狄，隋不能服東夷，唐患在西戎，宋患常在西北。若元，則起朔漠，並西域，平西夏，滅女真，臣高麗，定南詔，遂下江南，而天下為一，故其地北逾陰山，西極流沙，東盡遼左，南越海表。蓋漢東西九千三百二里，南北一萬三千三百六十八里，唐東西九千五百一十一里，南北一萬六千九百一十八里，元東南所至不下漢、唐，而西北則過之，有難以里數限者矣。」

「蓋嶺北、遼陽與甘肅、四川、雲南、湖廣之邊，唐所謂羈縻之州，往往在是，今皆賦役之，比于內地；而高麗守東藩，執臣禮惟謹，亦古所未見。」

元世祖至元十七年（1280年）元朝的疆域範圍：東北至外興安嶺、鄂霍次克海、日本海，包括庫頁島，併到達朝鮮半島中部的鐵嶺和慈悲嶺一帶，北到西伯利亞南部（譚其驤版地圖認為北到北冰洋），到達貝加爾湖以北的鄂畢河和葉尼塞河上游地區，西北至今新疆大部分地區，西南包括今西藏、雲南、以及緬甸北部，南到南海，東南到達東海中的澎湖列島。

在滅南宋前後，元政府曾要求周邊一些國家或地區（包括日本、安南、占城、緬甸、爪哇、琉求國）臣服，接受與元朝的朝貢關係，但遭到拒絕，故派遣軍隊進攻攻打這些國家或地區，例如緬甸蒲甘王朝拒絕朝貢，元軍入侵蒲甘並攻破蒲甘城，令緬甸臣服於元朝。其中以入侵日本國最為著名，也最慘烈。

忽必烈在位時期和中亞的察合台汗國，窩闊台汗國多次交戰，雙方互有勝負，1289年，窩闊台汗國奪取元朝控制下的新疆南部塔里木盆地大部分地區，元朝只控制塔里木盆地東部的且末、焉耆等地區。終忽必烈一朝，元朝始終控制新疆北部的別失八里（今烏魯木齊東北）一帶和新疆東部的吐魯番、哈密等地。

對日戰爭

至元十一年（1274年）元軍發動第一次侵日戰爭，日本史書稱之為「文永之役」，以三萬二千餘人，東征日本。至元十八年（1281年）七月，忽必烈又發動第二次侵日戰爭，史稱「弘安之役」，由范文虎、李庭率江南軍十餘萬人，到達次能、志賀二島，卻碰到颱風，溺死近半。通常認為颱風（日本人稱之為「神風」）是這兩次征日造成失敗的最大原因。亦有觀點認為，忽必烈擔心歸附軍的忠誠，故而借東征日本而一舉消除隱患。

重修京杭大運河

開鑿背景

元朝統一全國後，元大都成為全國的政治中心和軍事中心，而經濟中心仍在江南。「元都于燕，去江南極遠，而百司庶府之繁，衛士編民之眾，無不仰給于江南。」大都需要的糧食和其他物資，主要通過隋朝修成的南北大運河北運，這條運河在海河和淮河之間的一段，是以洛陽為中心向東北和東南伸展的。要從江南運送物資到大都，迂迴曲折，需要水陸並用，極其不便，為了避免繞道洛陽，元朝政府決定裁彎取直，開鑿新的運河，縮短江南和大都的水路距離，

從元大都到江南產糧區，大部分地方都有水道可通，只有濟州和臨清之間、通州和大都之間，沒有便捷的水道相通。

元朝在山東境內開鑿了濟州河和會通河，把濟州和臨清連接起來，又在北京境內開鑿了壩河和通惠河，把通州和大都之間連接起來。從而使得南起杭州，北至大都的京杭大運河得以全線貫通。

濟州河

濟州河，元朝政府開鑿的溝通泗水（今泗河）和汶水（今汶河）的運河。至元十八年（1281年）開工，至元二十年八月二十六日（1283年9月18日）鑿成。

這條運河南起南起濟寧路濟州（今山東濟寧）東南之魯橋鎮，北到東平路須城縣（今山東東平）西南之安山，全長150餘里。

會通河

濟州河完工後，元朝政府又開鑿了一條溝通汶水（今汶河）和御河（今衛河）的運河，至元二十六年正月十九日（1289年2月10日）開工，至元二十六年六月初四（1289年6月22日）鑿成，至元二十六年七月初四日（1289年7月22日），忽必烈賜名「會通河」。

這條運河南起東平路須城縣（今山東東平）西南之安山，經壽張（今山東梁山西北）西北至東昌路（今山東聊城），又西北至于臨清（今山東臨清），達于御河，全長250餘里。

壩河

至元十六年（1279年），元朝政府開鑿壩河作為運糧河。

這條運河西起大都光熙門（今北京東直門北面，當年這裡是主要糧倉所在地），向東到通州城北，接溫榆河，全長40餘里。

後來因壩河水源不足，水道不暢，元朝又開鑿了通惠河。

通惠河

至元二十九年（1292年）正月開工，至元三十年（1293年）七月鑿成，此運河鑿成後不久，至元三十年七月二十三日（1293年8月26日），忽必烈從上都返回大都，路經積水潭，看到「舳艫敝水」，非常高興，賜名「通惠河」。

這條運河由負責水利的都水監、元朝大科學家郭守敬主持。從昌平縣白浮村引神山泉，西折南轉，連通數條河流後，至西水門進入大都，南匯為積水潭，然後經大都皇城東側南流，東南出文明門（今北京崇文門北），東至通州高麗莊入白河，全長164里。

通惠河建成後，京杭大運河全線貫通，從江南杭州來的大批漕船可直達大都城內的積水潭。積水潭成了繁華的河運碼頭，元大都成為內陸港。 另外，海運至通州的漕糧也可經通惠河直達大都。

南北交流加強

京杭大運河的開通，出色地解決了「南糧北運」問題，元朝後期，「歲運米至京者五百萬石。」

元朝新運河的開鑿為南北物資的流動提供了重要條件，有力地促進了南北經濟文化的交流，成為陸地上最重要的南北交通大動脈，它的修通同時帶動了運河沿岸地區的社會經濟發展。

京杭大運河，溝通了海河、黃河、淮河、長江和錢塘江五大水系，全長1794公里。元朝京杭大運河比隋朝南北大運河縮短了900多公里，大大縮短了從北京到杭州的水路距離。

尊諡廟號

尊號憲天述道仁文義武大光孝皇帝，于至元二十一年正月初六日（1284年1月24日），由右丞相和禮霍孫率百官奉玉冊玉寶，為忽必烈奉上，諸王百官朝賀如朔旦儀，大赦天下。

諡號聖德神功文武皇帝，于至元三十一年五月初九日（1294年6月3日）忽必烈的繼任者元成宗所上，並為其議定廟號世祖，蒙古語尊號薛禪汗，漢文寫作薛禪皇帝。

《世祖皇帝謚冊文》，內容如下：

世祖實錄

至元三十一年六月二十五日（1294年7月19日），元成宗詔翰林國史院修《世祖實錄》，以完澤監修國史。

元貞元年六月十一日（1295年7月24日），翰林承旨董文用等向元成宗進呈《世祖實錄》，包括《世祖皇帝實錄》210卷，《事目》54卷，《聖訓》6卷，總計270卷。明朝初年史官修《元史》，參照實錄修成《世祖本紀》14卷，為《二十六史》中篇幅最長的本紀。《世祖實錄》今已失傳，其主幹內容保存在《世祖本紀》中。

董文用等《進實錄表》，內容如下：

家庭

父母

父母

• 父親：拖雷，1227年—1229年帝位空缺時擔任大蒙古國監國，1232年去世。1251年元憲宗蒙哥登基後追尊拖雷為皇帝，為拖雷上廟號睿宗，謚號英武皇帝，1266年元世祖忽必烈改謚為景襄皇帝，1310年元武宗海山加謚為仁聖景襄皇帝。

• 母親：唆魯禾帖尼，是蒙哥，忽必烈，旭烈兀，阿里不哥四人的生母，1251年元憲宗蒙哥登基後尊為皇太后，1252年去世。1266年元世祖上謚號莊聖皇后，1310年元武宗海山加謚為顯懿莊聖皇后。她的四個兒子皆曾稱帝，被後世史學家尊稱為「四帝之母」。

兄弟姐妹

兄弟

• 大哥：蒙哥，唆魯禾帖尼所生，元憲宗，1251年—1259年為第四位大蒙古國皇帝（蒙古帝國大汗）。1266年元世祖忽必烈為蒙哥上廟號憲宗，謚號桓肅皇帝。

• 二哥：忽睹都

• 三哥和五弟失其名。

• 六弟：旭烈兀，唆魯禾帖尼所生，奉蒙哥之命統率大軍進行第三次蒙古西征，遠征西亞，戰功卓著，伊兒汗國建立者

• 七弟：阿里不哥，唆魯禾帖尼所生，1260年—1264年和忽必烈爭位，1264年歸降忽必烈

• 八弟：撥綽（不者克）

• 九弟：末哥

• 十弟：歲哥都

• 十一弟：雪別台

姐妹

• 趙國公主 薛不罕下嫁聶古得、察忽

• 魯國公主 也速不花下嫁斡陳

• 魯國公主 薛只幹下嫁納陳（斡陳的弟弟）

• 獨木幹公主。鎮國薨，子聶古台襲爵，尚睿宗女獨木幹公主，略地江淮，薨于軍，賜興州民千餘戶，給其葬。

妻妾

妻妾

• 大皇后帖古倫

• 右大斡耳朵：

　• 察必皇后，弘吉列氏，1260年立為皇后，1281年去世。

　• 南必皇后，弘吉列氏，1283年立為皇后。

• 右第二斡耳朵 　

　• 塔剌海皇后 　 　 　

　• 奴罕皇后 　 　 　

• 右第三斡耳朵 　 　 　

　• 伯要兀真皇后 　 　 　

　• 闊闊倫皇后 　 　 　

• 右第四斡耳朵 　 　 　

　• 八八罕妃子 　 　 　

　• 撒不忽妃子

子嗣

兒子

• 長子：朵兒只，早逝，生母察必皇后

• 次子皇太子：真金，生母察必皇后，1261年封為燕王，1273年立為皇太子，1286年1月5日病逝。

• 三子安西王：忙哥剌，生母察必皇后

• 四子北安王：那木罕，生母察必皇后

• 五子雲南王：忽哥赤，生母烏拉納拉氏

• 六子大王：愛牙赤，生母不詳

• 七子西平王：奧都赤，生母不詳

• 八子寧王：闊闊出，生母不詳

• 九子鎮南王：脫歡，生母不詳

• 十子：忽都魯帖木兒，生母不詳

• 十一子：鐵蔑赤，生母南必皇后

女兒

• 趙國大長公主 月烈 下嫁趙武襄王愛不花

• 昌國公主 吾魯真 下嫁孛花

• 昌國大長公主 茶倫 下嫁帖監幹

• 魯國長公主 完澤 下嫁斡羅真

• 魯國大長公主 囊家真 下嫁鐵木兒、蠻子台

• 齊國大長公主 忽都魯堅迷失 下嫁高麗忠烈王王昛

• 公主，名字史書無記載，亦可能是宗室女，下嫁宋恭帝趙㬎（1276年降元後被封為瀛國公）

相關史料

• 《史集》，蒙古帝國伊兒汗國史學家拉施特撰寫。

• 《馬可·波羅遊記》，意大利威尼斯商人、旅行家及探險家馬可·波羅撰寫。

• 《大元聖政國朝典章》，簡稱《元典章》，元英宗在位後期（1322年—1323年）官修政書，收錄1234年—1322年元朝各地地方官吏會抄的有關政治、經濟、軍事、法律等方面的聖旨條畫、律令格例以及司法部門所判案例的匯編，分為前集和新集，史實多為《元史》所不載。

• 《至元新格》，1291年元世祖頒布的元朝第一部法律，收錄1206年—1291年元朝政府頒布的所有法律條文中，符合天下統一後國家的實際情況的那一部分法律條文，匯編而成，現存殘篇內容96條。

• 《大元通制》，1323年元英宗頒布的元朝第二部法律，現存殘本收錄1234年—1316年元朝官方頒布的關于法律方面的聖旨條畫、律令格例以及司法部門所判案例的匯編，史實多為《元史》所不載。

• 《至正條格》，1346年元惠宗頒布的元朝第三部法律，現存殘本收錄1260年—1344年元朝官方頒布的關于法律方面的聖旨條畫、律令格例以及司法部門所判案例的匯編，史實多為《元史》所不載。

• 《國朝名臣事略》（今稱《元朝名臣事略》），元朝史學家、文學家蘇天爵撰寫，成書于1329年之前，全書共15卷，共有元朝開國功臣、文臣、武將、學者一共47人的傳記。

• 《國朝文類》（今稱《元文類》），元朝史學家、文學家蘇天爵撰寫，成書于1334年，全書共70卷，收錄元太宗時期（1229—1241年）至元寧宗時期（1332年）大約一百年間的各種文獻資料。旨在保存文獻，全書收詔制、奏議、碑傳行狀多達二百三十餘篇，為研究元代史事的重要資料。此外書中還收錄名家詩、文八百餘篇，

• 《聖元名賢播芳續集》，是收藏于日本宮內廳書陵部的一部元文選集，共6卷，1373年高麗刻本，國內未見流傳。此書仿《聖宋名賢五百家播芳大全文粹》而作，收錄有聖元名賢一百二十三家所作表、箋、詔等各類文體的文章近二百七十篇。

• 《元史·世祖本紀》，明朝官修正史

• 《新元史·世祖本紀》，民國官修正史

• 《續資治通鑑》 ，清朝史學家畢沅撰寫。

• 《元史類編》，清朝史學家邵遠平撰寫。

• 《元史新編》，清朝史學家魏源撰寫。

• 《元書》，清朝史學家曾廉撰寫。

• 《蒙兀兒史記》，清末民初史學家屠寄撰寫。

• 忽必烈傳奇電視劇。

影視作品

• 《神鵰俠侶》由鍾志強飾演。

• 《馬可波羅》由英若誠飾演。

• 《北條時宗》由巴森飾演。

• 《神鵰俠侶》由袁苑飾演。

• 《建元風雲》由胡軍飾演。

• 《神鵰俠侶》由朱梓驍飾演。

評價

• 元朝重臣郝經在中統元年（1260年）農曆四月奉元世祖忽必烈之命出使南宋南北議和，在九月到達南宋後被扣留軟禁于真州15年，直到至元十二年（1275年）農曆二月才被南宋送歸元朝境內，他在被軟禁期間十餘次給南宋君臣上書，希望元宋締結和約，均無任何回複。郝經在中統元年（1260年）農曆十一月給南宋兩淮制置使李庭芝的書信《再與宋國兩淮制置使書》中對元世祖忽必烈的評價是：「今主上應期開運，資賦英明，喜衣冠，崇禮樂，樂賢下士，甚得中土之心，久為諸王推戴。稽諸氣數，觀其德度，漢高帝、唐太宗、魏孝文之流也。」 （「漢高帝」指的是漢太祖劉邦，「太祖」為廟號，「高帝」為謚號，《史記》中常謂「高祖」，因此人多以為其廟號為高祖，其實乃廟號謚號混稱。「唐太宗」指的是李世民。「魏孝文」指的是北魏孝文帝拓跋宏。）

• 元朝重臣郝經在中統二年（1261年）給南宋丞相賈似道的第三封書信《複與宋國丞相論本朝兵亂書》中對元世祖忽必烈的評價是：「夫主上之立，固其所也。太母有與賢之意，先帝無立子之詔。主上雖在潛邸，久符人望，而又以親則尊，以德則厚，以功則大，以理則順，愛養中國，寬仁愛人，樂賢下士，甚得夷夏之心，有漢、唐英主之風。加以地廣眾盛，將猛兵強，神斷威靈，風蜚雷厲，其為天下主無疑也。」

• 明朝官修正史《元史》宋濂等的評價是：「世祖度量弘廣，知人善任使，信用儒術，用能以夏變夷，立經陳紀，所以為一代之制者，規模宏遠矣。」

• 明朝官修正史《元史》宋濂等的評價是：「世稱元之治以至元、大德為首。……。故終世祖之世，家給人足。」

• 明朝官修皇帝實錄《明太祖實錄》記載，明太祖朱元璋在洪武七年八月初一日（1374年9月7日），親自前往南京歷代帝王廟祭祀三皇、五帝、夏禹王、商湯王、周武王、漢太祖、漢光武帝、隋文帝、唐太宗、宋太祖、元世祖一共十七位帝王，其中對元世祖忽必烈的祝文是：「惟神昔自朔土，來主中國，治安之盛，生餋之繁，功被人民者矣。夫何傳及後世不遵前訓，怠政致亂，天下雲擾，莫能拯救。元璋本元之農民，遭時多艱，憫烝黎于塗炭，建義聚兵，圖以保全生靈，初無黃屋左纛之意，豈期天佑人助，來歸者眾，事不能已，取天下于群雄之手，六師北征，遂定于一。乃不揆菲德，繼承正統，此天命人心所致，非智力所能。且自古立君，在乎安民，所以唐虞擇人禪授，湯武用兵征伐，因時制宜，其理昭然。神靈在天不昧，想自知之。今念歷代帝王開基創業、有功德于民者，乃于京師肇新廟宇，列序聖像，每歲祀以春、秋仲月，永為常典，禮奠之初，謹奉牲醴致祭，伏惟神鑒。尚享！」

• 明朝官修皇帝實錄《明太祖實錄》記載，洪武二十二年（1389年）十二月，明太祖朱元璋給北元兀納失里大王的信中，對元太祖和元世祖的評價如下：「昔中國大宋皇帝主天下三百一十餘年，後其子孫不能敬天愛民，故天生元朝太祖皇帝，起于漠北，凡達達、回回、諸番君長盡平定之，太祖之孫以仁德著稱，為世祖皇帝，混一天下，九夷八蠻、海外番國歸于一統，百年之間，其恩德孰不思慕，號令孰不畏懼，是時四方無虞，民康物阜。」

• 邵遠平《元史類編》的評價是：「冊曰：遂闢雄圖，混一中外；德威所指，無遠弗屆；建號立制，垂模一代；崇儒察奸，旋用旋敗；英明克斷，用無祗悔。」

• 葉子奇《草木子》卷三上： 「元朝自世祖（忽必烈）混一之後，天下治平者六、七十年，輕刑薄賦，兵革罕用；生者有養，死者有葬；行旅萬里，宿泊如家，誠所謂盛也亦！」

• 畢沅《續資治通鑑》的評價是：「帝度量恢廓，知人善任使，故能混一區宇，擴前古所未有。惟以亟于財用，中間為阿哈瑪特、盧世榮、僧格所蔽，卒能知其罪而正之。立綱陳紀，殷然欲被以文德，規模亦已弘遠矣。」（「阿哈瑪特」指的是阿合馬，「僧格」指的是桑哥，不同的人對他們的名字進行漢語音譯時，有一定差別。）

• 魏源《元史新編》的評價是：「論曰：元之初入中國，震蕩飄突，惟以殺伐攻虜為事，不知法度紀綱為何物，其去突厥、回紇者無幾。及世祖興，始延攬姚樞、竇默、劉秉忠、許衡之徒，以漢法治中夏，變夷為華，立綱陳紀，遂乃併吞東南，中外一統。加以享國長久，垂統創業，軼遼、金而媲漢、唐，赫矣哉！且其天性寬宏，包帡無外。阿里不哥及海都、篤哇諸王，皆親犯乘輿。對壘血戰，力屈勢窮，一朝歸命，則皆以太祖子孫，大朝會于上都，恩禮宴賚如初。當南北鋒焰血戰之餘，或離間以侍郎張天悅通宋而不信。敕南儒被掠賣為奴者，官贖為民。所獲宋商、宋諜私入境者，皆縱遣之而不誅。置榷場于樊城，通宋互市，弛沿邊軍器之禁。其長駕遠馭如是。宋幼主母子至通州，命大宴十日，小宴十日，然後赴上都。除弘吉剌皇后厚待之事別詳《皇后傳》外，其母子在江南莊田，聽為世業。其後文宗時市故全太后田為大承天寺永業，市故瀛國公田為大翔龍寺永業，直至順帝末，始奪和尚趙完普之田歸官，直與元相終始。宋之宗室如福王與芮等，隨宋主來歸，授平原郡公，其家貲在江南者，取至京賜之。此外宗室多類此。即奸民冒稱趙氏作亂者，從不以累及宋後，其優禮亡國也如是。思創業艱難，移漠北和林青草叢植殿隅，俾後世無忘草地。又留所御裘帶于大安閣以示子孫。武宗至大中嘗詣閣中發故篋閱之，則皆大練之服。西域賈胡屢獻牙忽大珠，價值數萬而不受。宮闈肅穆，無豔寵奇聞。至元八年，平灤路昌黎縣民生男，夜中有光，或奏請除之，帝曰：『何幸天生一好人，奈何反生妒忌！』命有司加恩養。伯顏伐宋，諄諄命以曹彬取江南不戮一人為法。其儉慈也又如是，非命世天縱而何？惟功利之習不能自勝于中，故日本、爪哇之師遠覆于海島，王、阿、桑、盧掊克之臣相仍于覆轍，蓋質有餘而學不足歟！」（「王、阿、桑、盧」指的分別是王文統、阿合馬、桑哥、盧世榮。四人均為元世祖朝不同時期的理財大臣。）

• 曾廉《元書》的評價是：「論曰：世祖崇儒重道，而特進言利之臣，三進三亂而訖不悟，豈非其明有所蔽耶？然其不欲剝民亦審矣。殆以為自我作則，將上下均足，堪為後世經制也。嗚呼！以世祖之仁，乘開國之運，而言利之弊，若此，然則利其有可言者耶？至其任中書樞密而重台綱，法紀立矣。國治民安是在知人哉！」

• 中華民國史學家屠寄《蒙兀兒史記》的評價是：「汗目有威稜，而度量弘廣，知人善任，群下畏而懷之，雖生長漠北，中年分藩用兵，多在漢地，知非漢法不足治漢民。故即位後，引用儒臣，參決大政，諸所設施，一變祖父諸兄武斷之風，漸開文明之治。惟志勤遠略，平宋之後，不知息民，東興日本之役，南起占城、交趾、緬甸、爪哇之師，北御海都、昔里吉、乃顏之亂。而又盛作宮室，造寺觀，幹戈土木，歲月不休。國用既匱，乃亟于理財，中間頗為阿合馬、盧世榮、桑哥之徒所蔽，雖知其罪而正之，閭閻受患已深矣。」

• 中華民國官修正史《新元史》柯劭忞的評價是：「唐太宗承隋季之亂，魏徵勸以行王道、敦教化。封德彞駁之曰：『書生不知時務，聽其虛論，必誤國家。』太宗黜德彞而用徵，卒致貞觀之治。蒙古之興，無異于匈奴、突厥。至世祖獨崇儒向學，召姚樞、許衡、竇默等敷陳仁義道德之說，豈非所謂書生之虛論者哉？然踐阼之後，混壹南北，紀綱法度燦然明備，致治之隆，庶幾貞觀。由此言之，時兒今古，治無夷夏，未有舍先王之道，而能保世長民者也。至于日本之役，棄師十萬猶圖再舉；阿合馬已敗，複用桑哥；以世祖之仁明，而吝于改過。如此，不能不為之嘆息焉。」

注釋