Early life

Cao Shen was from Pei County in present-day Jiangsu and he served as a prison warden in his early days. He was a close friend of Liu Bang. Once, Liu Bang was tasked with escorting some convicts to Mount Li to become labourers, but some prisoners escaped and Liu was forced to become a fugitive. He sought refuge with his followers on Mount Mangdang (in present-day Yongcheng, Henan) and maintained secret contact with Cao Shen and Xiao He. In 209 BC, after the Dazexiang Uprising broke out, the magistrate of Pei County considered rebelling against the Qin dynasty as well, so he heeded Cao Shen and Xiao He's advice to invite Liu Bang back to support him. However, the magistrate changed his mind later and denied Liu Bang entry into the city. He was worried that Xiao He and Cao Shen might open the city gates for Liu Bang so he planned to have them killed, but Xiao and Cao managed to escape and join Liu. The townsfolk rebelled against the magistrate and killed him and allowed Liu Bang and his men to enter. Liu Bang built up his rebel army in Pei County and Cao Shen served as one of his advisors.

Insurrection against the Qin dynasty

Cao Shen defeated the Qin armies led by Xue Guo, Hu Ling and Fang Yu, and was promoted to a high rank by Liu Bang for his contributions. Cao Shen defeated Zhang Han's army and drove Zhang towards Puyang. He returned to help Liu Bang, who was trapped at Yongqiu, and defeated Li You, the Qin general defending Sanchuan. By then, Cao Shen had conquered two fiefs and 122 counties in total. In the following battles against Qin, Cao Shen defeated the Qin generals Wang Li and Zhao Ben and captured the Wu and Yao passes leading to Xianyang (the Qin capital).

Chu–Han Contention

After the fall of the Qin dynasty, Liu Bang received the title of "King of Han" from Xiang Yu, and was relocated to Hanzhong. Liu Bang granted Cao Shen the title of "Marquis of Jiancheng" (建成侯) and promoted him to a general rank. Cao Shen helped Liu Bang conquer the Three Qins. During the Chu–Han Contention, a power struggle between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu, Cao Shen joined Han Xin's army in the campaigns on the northern front. They scored victories against Wei Bao's forces, the Zhao army at the Battle of Jingxing, and the combined forces of Qi and Chu at the Battle of Wei River. During this time, Cao Shen was appointed as acting-Left Chancellor of Liu Bang's Han kingdom, and subsequently promoted to Right Chancellor. After the conquest of the Qi kingdom, Cao Shen left Han Xin and returned to Liu Bang's side to join him in resisting Xiang Yu. Liu Bang later sent Cao Shen to suppress the remnants of Qi.

In 202 BC, Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu at the Battle of Gaixia and unified China under his rule. Liu Bang became the Emperor and his dynasty was named "Han". He was historically known as "Emperor Gao" (or Emperor Gaozu). When rewarding his subjects, Gaozu named Cao Shen as the person who made the most contributions in battle. However, Cao Shen resigned from his post as Right Chancellor. In 201 BC, Cao Shen was appointed as a chancellor to Liu Fei (Gaozu's eldest son). He was also conferred the title of "Marquis of Pingyang" (平陽侯) and given 10,630 households in his marquisate.

As chancellor

While serving as chancellor, Cao Shen sought the help of Confucian scholars in governing Qi but was not impressed by their ideas. After discussing with a scholar called Gai Gong, Cao Shen was influenced by the Huang-Lao school of thought, which used a mix of persuasion and coercion. Cao Shen followed Gai Gong's advice to implement policies to restore social stability and frequently consulted Gai Gong on how to govern Qi.

In 196BC, he commanded the Qi forces that assisted the emperor in suppressing Chen Xi's rebellion in Dai (present-day northern Shanxi and northwestern Hebei).

In 193 BC, the chancellor Xiao He died and was succeeded by Cao Shen. Cao Shen spent his time drinking and feasting, and maintained well Xiao He's system of governance but did not implement any new changes. When Emperor Hui asked him why he did not change the system, Cao Shen replied that he was not as good as Xiao He and did not want to make changes for fear of negatively affecting the system left behind by Xiao. This became the origin of a Chinese idiom, Xiao Gui Cao Sui (萧规曹随; lit. "Cao following Xiao's rules"), which is used to describe the continuation of the work of one's predecessor.

Appraisal

The historian Sima Qian commented in Records of the Grand Historian that he felt that among all of Liu Bang's subjects, Cao Shen's contributions in battle was second only to Han Xin. Commenting on Cao Shen's role as chancellor, Sima Qian mentioned that Cao had done well in preserving Xiao He's system of governance and achieved the peace and stability desired by the people.

Family and descendants

Cao Shen's son, Cao Zhu (曹窋; died 161 BC), inherited his father's marquis title "Marquis of Pingyang". Cao Zhu was in turn succeeded by his son, Cao Qi (曹奇; died 153 BC), who helped Emperor Jing suppress the Rebellion of the Seven States. Cao Qi's son, Cao Shi (曹時; died 131 BC), married Princess Pingyang, one of Emperor Jing's daughters. Cao Shi's son, Cao Xiang (曹襄; died 115 BC), married Princess Wei (a daughter of Emperor Wu and Empress Wei Zifu) and served as a general in the Han campaigns against the Xiongnu. Cao Xiang's son, Cao Zong (曹宗; died 91 BC), was implicated in a plot to overthrow Emperor Wu in 91 BC and was stripped of the marquis title he inherited from his ancestor. He and his family also lost their inherited marquisate as a consequence.

Three Kingdoms warlord Cao Cao claimed to be a descendant of Cao Shen. However this has been rebuked through genetic evidence.

生平

早年生活

早年為秦朝沛縣獄掾，即管理監獄的小吏（可能為典獄長），但已相當出名，蕭何為曹參上司（主吏），劉邦屬押解犯人之官吏（亭長），。曹參與劉邦、蕭何、樊噲皆為沛縣人，但蕭、曹二人是縣府官吏，縣中多有好名聲，劉、樊二人之地位相當於地痞，在鄉里父老眼中地位大有不同。

反秦戰事

西元前209年（秦二世元年），陳勝與吳廣假託太子扶蘇與楚國將軍項燕名號，發動大澤起義反秦，各地均出現響應者。蕭何和曹參、樊噲、周勃等沛縣人聚集商議應如何面對。沛縣縣令原本聽從蕭何、曹參的意見，認為應該從天下大勢追隨陳勝、吳廣，不料卻馬上反悔，打算將蕭、曹二人以反賊之名逮捕獻給秦國官員。此時，劉邦已縱放囚犯反秦起義，蕭、曹二人、沛縣父老與劉邦裡應外合，將沛縣縣令殺死，正式宣佈沛縣加入反秦大旗下。

沛縣反秦後，蕭、曹二人因地位較高，原被推舉為首領，但兩人卻有所顧忌，禮讓不肯當反抗軍首領，鄉中父老以占卜認為劉邦最適，因此曹參反擔任劉邦的中涓，輔佐劉邦起義。

敗章邯斬李由

在反秦之初，曹參率軍攻擊胡陵、方與，攻秦監公軍，大破之。往東攻下薛縣，攻擊薛城西面的泗水守軍。又攻占胡陵，率軍轉守方與。後方與、豐邑投向魏軍，曹參率軍攻之。賜爵曹參為七大夫。曹參再破秦司馬夷軍，奪取碭、狐父、祁的善置邑。攻取下邑以西，至虞，追擊秦將章邯的戰車騎兵。攻爰戚及亢父，先登。遷為五大夫。北救阿，擊章邯軍，陷陳，追至濮陽。攻定陶，取臨濟，南救雍丘。擊李由軍，破之，殺死秦雒邑郡守李由，虜秦候一人。

攻陷咸陽

定陶之戰，楚項梁戰死後，劉邦和項羽向東撤退，楚後懷王封劉邦為碭郡長，帶領碭郡兵，又封曹參為執帛，號稱「建成君」。後封予爰戚縣，人稱「戚公」，隸屬碭郡。

其後從攻東郡尉軍，在成武南打敗秦軍。擊王離軍成陽南，又在杠里攻打他們，大破之。追北，西至開封，擊趙賁軍，破之，圍趙賁開封城中。西擊將楊熊軍于曲遇，破之，虜秦司馬及御史各一人。遷為執圭。從攻陽武，下軒轅、緱氏，封絕黃河渡口，還擊趙賁軍尸縣北，破之。從南攻犨，與南陽守����戰陽城郭東，陷陳，取宛，俘虜南陽守����，盡定南陽郡。從西攻佔武關、嶢關。前攻藍田南的秦軍，又夜擊其北，秦軍大破，遂至咸陽，滅秦。

楚漢相爭

劉邦被項羽封為漢王時，劉邦封曹參為「建成侯」。到了漢中後，遷為將軍。

三秦戰役

跟從劉邦回軍平定三秦，初攻下辯縣、故道縣、雍縣、斄縣。在好畤南擊章平軍，破之，圍好畤，取壤鄉。擊三秦軍壤鄉東及高櫟，破之。複圍章平，章平出好畤走。因擊趙賁、內史保軍，破之。東取咸陽，更名曰新城。參將兵守景陵二十日，三秦派章平等攻參，參出擊，大破之。賜食邑于寧秦。參以將軍身份引兵于廢丘圍章邯。

楚漢戰爭

以中尉身份從漢王出臨晉關。至河內，下修武，渡圍津，東擊龍且、項他於定陶，破之。東取碭縣、蕭縣、彭城。擊項籍軍，漢軍大敗逃跑。參以中尉圍取雍丘。王武反于外黃，程處反于燕，往擊，盡破之。柱天侯反于衍氏，又進破取衍氏。擊羽嬰于昆陽，追至葉縣。還攻武疆，乘勢到達滎陽。參自漢中為將軍、中尉，從擊諸侯，到項羽戰敗，還至滎陽，一共兩年。

漢高祖二年，曹參官拜假左丞相，屯兵關中。魏王豹起初歸順漢王，但之後又反叛，曹參與韓信向東攻魏，生擒魏王豹及其妻子和母親。事後韓信與曹參受劉邦的命令，先破代國，殺夏說，把趙國的注意力轉向趙國北部，劉邦派韓信與張耳在井陘設疑，利用地理優勢吸引趙國的主力，劉邦自己親自率趁虛直取邯鄲，當趙國失去邯鄲，襄國危急，陳餘進退兩難，此時韓信與張耳出井陘，攻殺陳餘，趙將「戚將軍」向西逃至鄔縣，被正在平定魏、代一帶的曹參斬殺，趙王歇逃到襄國，劉邦與張耳、韓信南北夾擊襄國，攻破襄國會合，殺趙王歇，平定趙國。後來漢軍又平定了巨鹿、常山郡，招降了燕國，隨後曹參跟隨劉邦、靳歙、周勃、周緤等人返回敖倉。

漢朝初立

分封天下

項羽敗死，天下已定，漢王劉邦稱帝，即漢高祖。除了諸侯王之外，最初僅排定十八位列侯之位次，分別為：蕭何、曹參、張敖、周勃、樊噲、酈商、奚涓、夏侯嬰、灌嬰、傅寬、靳歙、王陵、陳武、王吸、薛歐、周昌、丁復、蟲達。群臣都認為曹參親自作戰，負傷七十處，軍功無數，應為第一。但劉邦卻覺得蕭何後勤與計畫的貢獻才是居功厥偉，關內侯鄂君於是進言：「群臣當然沒錯，曹參有野戰略地之功，但楚漢相爭五年，喪失不少士兵，但蕭何從關中徵兵來補足士兵的不足，不是蕭何，漢軍早就折損所有兵卒了。楚、漢兩方，在滎陽殭持時，漢軍面臨缺糧危機，蕭何利用關中的漕運，我們才都有糧草可用。雖然蕭何沒有隨軍出征，卻守護關中，給我們支援，形同隨時陪伴陛下一般，這應是萬世之功。我認為論功應該是蕭何第一，曹參第二。」群臣心服，於是論功，蕭何第一，曹參第二。

韓信被改封為楚王，曹參也歸還丞相印。高祖六年（前201年），劉邦分封諸侯王時，把長子劉肥封為齊王，而讓曹參擔任輔佐劉肥的相國，封平陽侯，食邑10630戶。

齊相的治術

孝惠帝元年，除諸侯相國法，曹參改任齊丞相時，齊國本來甚為富庶，有七十個城。曹參希望能妥為管理，想要尋求治理齊國的方法。齊國本是儒家大本營，繼承孔子儒學的學者不計其數，曹參尋訪各個儒學學者，得到的建議卻莫衷一是，使曹參不知追隨何人的說法。曹參聽聞膠西有一學者蓋公，所學為黃老治國之術，曹參重金尋訪蓋公。蓋公認為天下戰爭後初定，應該使人民清靜，不可繁政擾民，社會才能安定。曹參於是為蓋公建立別館，以其為政事顧問，尋訪其意見，治理齊國大部分均用黃老之術。齊國上下以「賢相」之評價流傳。

擔任漢相國

惠帝二年（前193年），蕭何于臨終前向漢惠帝劉盈推薦曹參繼任朝廷的相國。蕭何去世不久，曹參就跟部下說：「我一定會繼任相國。」不久朝廷果然派人召他赴任。曹參離開齊國時，交代繼任者說：「刑場及監獄（獄市）是最重要的地方，不要擾亂這裡的制度。」繼任者問：「治道不過就是這樣？」曹參說：「並非如此。黃老之術的兼容並蓄就體現在刑法的確實執行之上。今天你擾亂了罪刑的審問及執行，那麼你要奸人都跑到哪裏去呢？這是我要先告訴你的。」

蕭規曹隨

曹參就任朝廷相國期間，整天飲酒食肉，實行黃老之術，政治上無為而治，繼續執行蕭何留下的政策，不予改變。惠帝覺得非常怪異，派曹參之子曹窟去勸諫曹參。曹參大怒，鞭笞曹窟兩百下，罵他：「天下大事，還不是你可以管的！」惠帝只好親自問曹參為何如此，曹參卻反問說：「皇上跟漢高祖相比，誰比較聖明？」皇帝說：「我怎麼敢跟先帝比。」曹參又問說：「我跟蕭何相比，誰較賢能？」皇帝說：「你似乎及不上蕭何。」曹參接著說：「陛下說得很對。況且高祖與蕭何安定了天下，法令已經明白、具備了，只要陛下垂拱而治，而讓臣等堅守崗位，遵守他們的法度而不違背，不是很對麼？」時人歌頌：「蕭何為法，顜若劃一；曹參代之，守而勿失。載其清淨，民以寧一。」史稱「蕭規曹隨」。

據《前漢書》記載，秦朝時曹參與蕭何於沛縣為摯友，但漢朝得天下，蕭何擔任相國時，兩人反生嫌隙。不過曹參為漢相國時，卻對蕭何擔任相國時之制度一無變更。現今中文使用中，世人所熟知的「蕭規曹隨」有率由舊章、依樣葫蘆、一成不變、沿襲舊規等等意涵，然而曹參為漢相國時，卻不是此成語所指稱之無所事事，反而是選拔賢才、注重吏治，各官吏均選任老成持重之人，若有好名之人，即使其去職。可見「蕭規曹隨」的傳統見解對曹參為漢相國的治術略有誤解。曹參擔任相國時，對於官吏有小過錯，反而為其隱忍不公開，給下屬改過之機會。

曹參為漢相國三年去世，謚懿侯。

軼事

好酒

惠帝擔心曹參飲酒過度，不顧政事，要求擔任御史的曹窟勸諫父親。因此才有「蕭規曹隨」中曹參與惠帝的對話。另根據據前漢書記載，曹參擔任相國時之所以飲酒無度，是為了使前來關說之人灰頭土臉、無法開口而歸，所以當關說之人一會見曹參，曹參輒不停勸他飲酒，至灌醉對方為止，使對方根本無從開口。但此風為下屬模仿，下屬均好宴樂，有人深深以此為患，希望曹相國糾正之，但曹相國目睹時，卻呼叫下屬一同飲酒作樂。

任用魏勃

魏勃年輕時，家貧自薦于齊相國曹參。曹參任用他為舍人，後薦于齊悼惠王劉肥，為齊國內史。而後在誅殺諸呂中，逼死齊相召平、發兵禁錮瑯琊王劉澤奪取兵權。

評價

關於武勇，史記載曰：「身被七十創，攻城掠地，功最多，宜第一。」

關於治術，百姓歌頌曰：「蕭何為法，顜若畫一；曹參代之，守而勿失。載其清淨，民以寧一。」

太史公司馬遷曰：「曹相國參攻城野戰之功所以能多若此者，以與淮陰侯俱。及信已滅，而列侯成功，唯獨參擅其名。參為漢相國，清靜極言合道。然百姓離秦之酷後，參與休息無為，故天下俱稱其美矣。」

後嗣

後代曹襄，在漢武帝時曾帶兵攻擊匈奴。後代子孫均於漢代襲任平陽侯。

相關條目

• 劉邦

• 蕭何