Names and titles

In Chinese history and literature, Wu Zetian (ù tsɤ̌ tʰjɛ́n) was known by various names and titles. Mention of her in the English language has only increased their number. A difficulty in English translations from Chinese is that English translations tend to specify gender (as in the case of "emperor" versus "empress" or "prince" versus "princess"); whereas, in Classical Chinese, words such as hou (后, "sovereign", "prince", "queen") or huangdi (皇帝, "imperial supreme ruler", "royal deity") are of a grammatically indeterminate gender.

Names

In Wu's time, women's birth-names were rarely recorded. She changed her name to Wu Zhao after rising to power, often written as 武曌, (曌 has also been written as 瞾 on occasion, and both are derivatives of 照, which possibly is her original name), with 瞾 being one of the invented characters by Wu. Wu was her patronymic surname, which she retained, according to traditional Chinese practice, after marriage to Gaozong, of the Li family. Emperor Taizong gave her the art name Wu Mei (武媚), meaning "glamorous". (Thus, today Chinese people often refer to her as Wu Mei or Wu Meiniang (武媚娘) when they write about her youth, whereas they refer to her as Wu Hou (武后) when referring to her as empress consort and empress dowager, and Wu Zetian (武則天) when referring to her reign as empress regnant.)

Titles

During her life, and posthumously, Wu Zetian was awarded various official titles. Both hou (后) and huangdi (皇帝) are titles (modifications, or added characters to hou are of lesser importance). Born Wu Zhao, she is not properly known as "Wu Hou" (Empress Wu) until receiving this title in 655, nor is she properly known as "Wu Zetian", her regnal name, until 690, when she took the title Emperor.

• During the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang (618-626):

　• Lady Wu (from 624)

• During the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang (626-649):

　• Talented Lady (才人; from 637), 17th rank consort

• During the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (649-683):

　• Imperial Concubine Zhaoyi (昭儀; from 650), 6th rank consort

　• Empress (皇后; from 655), 1st rank consort  

　• Heavenly Empress (天后; from 674), 1st rank consort

• During the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (684-684):

　• Empress Dowager Wu (武皇太后; from 683)

• During the reign of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (684-690)

　• Empress Dowager Wu (武皇太后; from 684)

• During her reign as the Empress Regnant of the Zhou Dynasty (690-705):

　• Holy Emperor (聖神皇帝; from 690)

　• Holy Golden Emperor (金輪聖神皇帝; from 693)

　• Holy Golden Goddess Emperor (越古金輪聖神皇帝; from 694)

　• Holy Golden Emperor (金輪聖神皇帝; from 695)

　• Emperor Tiance Jinlun (天策金輪大帝; from 695)

　• Emperor Zetian Dasheng (則天大聖皇帝; from 705)

• During the second reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (705-710):

　• Empress Zetian Dasheng (則天大聖皇后; from 705)

• During the second reign of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (710-712):  

　• ''Heavenly Empress (天后; from 710)  

　• Holy Empress (大聖天后; from 710)  

　• Empress of Heaven (天后聖帝; from 712)

　• Holy Empress (聖后; from 712)

• During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (713-756):  

　• Empress Zetian (則天皇后; from 716)

　• Holy Empress Zetianshun (則天順聖皇后; from 749)

"Empress"

Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of empress consort and empress regnant. Generally, the monarch was male and his chief spouse was given a title such as huanghou (皇后), often translated as "empress" or more specific "empress consort". Upon the death of the emperor, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowager, sometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the (male) heir to the position of emperor.

Since the time of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BC) the Emperor of China used the title huangdi (皇帝, translated as "emperor" or "empress (regnant)" as appropriate), Wu Zetian was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of huangdi. Her tenure as de facto ruler of China and officially regent Tang dynasty (first through her husband and then through her sons, from 665 to 690) was not without precedent in Chinese history; however, she broke precedent when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the Zhou (周) (interrupting the Tang dynasty), ruling personally under the name Sacred and Divine Huangdi (聖神皇帝), and variations thereof, from 690 through 705.

Wu Zetian and Empress Dowager Liu of the Song Dynasty are said to be the only women in Chinese history to have worn a yellow robe, ordinarily reserved for the sole use of the emperor, as a monarch or co-ruler in their own right.

Background and early life

The Wu family clan originated in Wenshui County, Bingzhou (an ancient name of the city of Taiyuan, Shanxi). The birthplace of Wu Zetian is not documented in preserved historical literature and remains controversial. Some scholars argue that Wu Zetian was born in Wenshui, and some argue it's Lizhou (利州) (modern-day Guangyuan in Sichuan), while some others insist she was born in the imperial capital of Chang'an (today known as Xi'an).

Wu Zetian was born in the seventh year of the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang. In the same year, a total eclipse of the sun was visible across China. Her father Wu Shiyue was engaged in the timber business and the family was relatively well off. Her mother was from the powerful Yang family. During the final years of Emperor Yang of Sui, Li Yuan (李淵) (who would go on to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang) stayed in the Wu household many times and became close to the Wu family, whilst holding appointments in both Hedong and Taiyuan. After Li Yuan overthrew Emperor Yang, he was generous to the Wu family, providing them with money, grain, land, and clothing. Once the Tang dynasty became established, Wu Shihou held a succession of senior ministerial posts including the governor of Yangzhou, Lizhou, and Jingzhou (荊州) (modern-day Jiangling County, Hubei).

Wu was from a wealthy family, and she was encouraged by her father to read books and pursue her education. He made sure that his daughter was well-educated, a trait that was not common among women, much less encouraged by their fathers. Wu read and learned about many different topics such as politics and other governmental affairs, writing, literature, and music. At age fourteen, she was taken to be an imperial concubine (lesser wife) of Emperor Taizong of Tang. It was there that she became a type of secretary. This opportunity allowed her to continue to pursue her education. She was given the title of cairen, the title for one of the consorts with the fifth rank in Tang's nine-rank system for imperial officials, nobles, and consorts. When she was summoned to the palace, her mother, the Lady Yang, wept bitterly when saying farewell to her, but she responded, "How do you know that it is not my fortune to meet the Son of Heaven?" Lady Yang reportedly then understood her ambitions, and therefore stopped crying.

Consort Wu, however, did not appear to be much favored by Emperor Taizong, although it appeared that she did have sexual relations with him at one point. According to her own account (given in a rebuke of the Chancellor Ji Xu during her reign), there was an occasion during the time she was concubine when she impressed Taizong with her fortitude:

When Emperor Taizong died in 649, his youngest son, Li Zhi (whose mother was the main wife Wende), succeeded him as Emperor Gaozong of Tang. Li and Wu had had an affair when Taizong was still alive.

Taizong had fourteen sons, including three to his beloved Empress Zhangsun (601–636), but none with Consort Wu. Thus, according to the custom by which consorts of deceased emperors who had not produced children were permanently confined to a monastic institution after the emperor's death, Wu was consigned to Ganye Temple (感業寺), with the expectation that she would serve as a Buddhist nun there for the remainder of her life. Wu was to defy expectations, however and left the convent for an alternative life. After Taizong's death Li Zhi came to visit her and, finding her more beautiful, intelligent, and intriguing than before, decided to bring her back as his own concubine.

Rise to power

By early 650, Consort Wu was a concubine of Emperor Gaozong, and she had the title Zhaoyi (昭儀) (the highest ranking concubine of the nine concubines in the second rank). Wu progressively gained immeasurable influence over the governance of the empire throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign. Over time, she came to control most major decisions made. Even in the absence of Emperor Gaozong, she personally held the court to decide on the day-to-day running of civil or military responsibilities. After Emperor Gaozong's death in 683, Empress Wu became the Empress Dowager and Regent. She proceeded to depose Emperor Zhongzong, for displaying independence. She then had her youngest son Emperor Ruizong made emperor. Furthermore she was ruler not only in substance but in appearance as well. She presided over imperial gatherings and prevented Emperor Ruizong from taking an active role in governance. In 690, she had Emperor Ruizong yield the throne to her and established the Zhou Dynasty. She was regarded as ruthless in her endeavors to grab power, and was believed by traditional historians to have killed her own children. This was later proven false, as these rumors seem to have surfaced 400 years after her death. This was likely due to the belief in ancient China that a woman wasn't suited to hold the power of the emperor.

Imperial consort and palatial intrigue

Gaozong became emperor at the age of 21. Gaozong was not the first choice as he was inexperienced and frequently incapacitated with a sickness that caused him spells of dizziness. Gaozong was only made heir to the empire due to the disgrace of his two older brothers. On or after the anniversary of Emperor Taizong's death, Emperor Gaozong went to Ganye Temple to offer incense. When he and Consort Wu saw each other, both of them wept. This was seen by Emperor Gaozong's wife, Empress Wang. At that time, Emperor Gaozong did not favor Empress Wang. Instead, he favored his concubine Consort Xiao. Furthermore, Empress Wang did not have any children, and Consort Xiao had one son (Li Sujie) and two daughters (Princesses Yiyang and Xuancheng). Empress Wang, seeing that Emperor Gaozong was still impressed by Consort Wu's beauty, hoped that the arrival of a new concubine would divert the emperor from Consort Xiao. Therefore, Empress Wang secretly told Wu to stop shaving her hair and, at a later point, the Empress welcomed her to the palace. (Some modern historians dispute this traditional account. Some think that Consort Wu never left the imperial palace and might have had an affair with Emperor Gaozong while Emperor Taizong was still alive.)

Consort Wu soon overtook Consort Xiao as Emperor Gaozong's favorite. In 652, she gave birth to her first child, a son named Li Hong. In 653, she gave birth to another son, Li Xián. Neither one of these sons was in contention to be Emperor Gaozong's heir because Emperor Gaozong, at the request of officials influenced by Empress Wang and her uncle (the chancellor Liu Shi), had designated his eldest son Li Zhong as his heir. Li Zhong's mother, Consort Liu, was of lowly birth. Empress Wang did this in order to receive Consort Liu's gratitude.

By 654, both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao had lost favor with Emperor Gaozong, and these two former romantic rivals joined forces against Consort Wu, but to no avail. For example, as a sign of his love for Consort Wu, Emperor Gaozong conferred posthumous honors on her father Wu Shiyue in 654.

In the same year, Consort Wu gave birth to a daughter. However, shortly after birth, her daughter died with evidence suggesting deliberate strangulation. The evidence include allegations made by Consort Wu herself, and she accused Empress Wang of murder. Empress Wang was accused of having been seen near the child's room, with corroborating testimony by alleged eyewitnesses. Emperor Gaozong was led to believe that Empress Wang, motivated by jealousy, had most likely killed the child. Additionally, Empress Wang lacked an alibi and was unable to clear her name.

Scientifically credible forensic pathology information about the death of the Consort Wu's daughter does not exist, and scholars lack real, concrete evidence about her death. However, there are many theories and speculations made by scholars. Because traditional folklore tend to portray Wu as a power hungry woman with no care for whom she hurt or what she did, the most popular theory is that Wu killed her own child in order to implicate Empress Wang. Other schools of thought argue that Empress Wang indeed killed the child out of jealousy and hatred toward Consort Wu. The third argument is that the child died of asphyxiation or crib death. The ventilation systems of the time were non-existent or of poor quality, and the lack of ventilation combined with using coal as a heating method could have led to carbon monoxide poisoning due to a build up of fumes. No matter what caused the death of the child, Consort Wu blamed Empress Wang for it, and as a result, tried to find a way to remove Empress Wang from her position.

Because the death of the child, an angry Emperor Gaozong also wanted to depose Empress Wang and replace her with Consort Wu. But first, he needed to make sure that he had the support of the government chancellors. So, Gaozong met with his uncle Zhangsun Wuji, the head chancellor. During the meeting, Gaozong brought up the topic of Empress Wang's childlessness several times. Childlessness was a sufficient excuse to depose Empress Wang. However, Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation. Subsequent visits made by Consort Wu's mother, Lady Yang and an official allied with Consort Wu, Xu Jingzong to seek support from Zhangsun were met with disappointment.

In summer 655, Consort Wu accused Empress Wang and her mother, Lady Liu, of using witchcraft. In response, Emperor Gaozong barred Lady Liu from the palace and demoted Empress Wang's uncle, Liu Shi. Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Consort Wu, including Li Yifu, Xu, Cui Yixuan (崔義玄), and Yuan Gongyu (袁公瑜). On an occasion in the autumn of 655, Emperor Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun, Li Ji, Yu Zhining, and Chu Suiliang to the palace. Chu had deduced that the summoning was regarding changing the Empress. Li Ji claimed an illness and refused to attend. At the meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Empress Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Meanwhile, other chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also opposed the move. When Emperor Gaozong asked Li Ji again, Li Ji's response was, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?" Emperor Gaozong, therefore, became resolved. He demoted Chu to be a commandant at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha, Hunan), and then deposed both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao. He placed them both under arrest and making Consort Wu empress to replace Empress Wang. (Later that year, after Emperor Gaozong showed signs of considering their release. Because of this, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were killed on orders by the new Empress Wu. After their deaths, Empress Wu was often haunted by them in her dreams.)

For the rest of Emperor Gaozong's reign, Wu and Emperor Gaozong often took up residence at the eastern capital Luoyang and only infrequently spent time in Chang'an.)

Empress consort

Changes at court and intervention in politics

In 655, Wu became Tang Gaozong's new empress consort (皇后, húanghòu).

In 656, on the advice of Xu Jingzong, Emperor Gaozong deposed Consort Liu's son Li Zhong from being his heir apparent. He changed Li Zhong's status to Prince of Liang and designated Empress Wu's son, Li Hong as the title of Prince of Dai and crown prince (that is, Heir Apparent).

In 657, Empress Wu and her allies began reprisals against officials who had opposed her ascension. She first had Xu and Li Yifu, who were by now chancellors, falsely accuse Han Yuan and Lai Ji of being complicit with Chu Suiliang in planning treason. The three of them, along with Liu Shi, were demoted to being prefects of remote prefectures, with provisions that they would never be allowed to return to Chang'an. In 659, she had Xu accuse Zhangsun Wuji of plotting treason with the low-level officials Wei Jifang (韋季方) and Li Chao (李巢). Zhangsun was exiled and, later in the year, was forced to commit suicide in exile. Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of his titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu (褚彥甫) and Chu Yanchong (褚彥沖) were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before the execution order reached his location. It was said that after this time, no official dared to criticize the emperor.

In 660, Li Zhong, Gaozong's first-born son (to consort Liu) also was targeted. Li Zhong had feared that he would be next and had sought out advice of fortune tellers. Wu had him exiled and placed under house arrest.

Ruling with Emperor Gaozong

In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had the opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast. Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related. He began to have Empress Wu make rulings on petitions made by officials. It was said that Empress Wu had quick reactions and understood both literature and history, and therefore, she made correct rulings. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's, from this point on, Empress Wu became the undisputed power behind the throne for twenty-three years.

During these years, Li Yifu had been, due to favors from Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, exceedingly powerful, and he grew particularly corrupt. In 663, after reports of Li Yifu's corruption were made to Emperor Gaozong, Emperor Gaozong had Liu Xiangdao and Li Ji investigate, finding Li Yifu guilty. Li Yifu was removed from his post and exiled, and would never return to Chang'an.

During the years, Empress Wu had repeatedly, in her dreams, seen Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, in the states they were after their terrible deaths, and she came to believe that their spirits were after her. For that reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace, into Penglai Palace, and when Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall (含元殿), was completed in 663, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu moved to the newly remodeled palace (which was itself later renamed to Hanyuan Palace). (However, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao continued to appear in her dreams even after this, and therefore, late in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he and Empress Wu were often at the eastern capital Luoyang, not at Chang'an.)

By 664, Empress Wu was said to be interfering so much in the day-to-day administration of the imperial governance that she was angering Emperor Gaozong. Furthermore, she had engaged the Taoist sorcerer Guo Xingzhen (郭行真) in using witchcraft—an act that was prohibited by regulations and led to Empress Wang's downfall—and the eunuch Wang Fusheng (王伏勝) reported this to Emperor Gaozong which angered him even more. He consulted the chancellor Shangguan Yi, who suggested that he depose Empress Wu. He had Shangguan draft an edict. But as Shangguan was doing so, Empress Wu received news of what was happening. She went to the emperor to plead her case, just as he was holding the edict that Shangguan had drafted. Emperor Gaozong could not bear to depose her and blamed the episode on Shangguan. As both Shangguan and Wang had served on Li Zhong's staff, Empress Wu had Xu falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of planning treason. Shangguan, Wang, and Shangguan's son Shangguan Tingzhi (上官庭芝) were executed, while Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide. (Shangguan Tingzhi's daughter Shangguan Wan'er, then an infant, and her mother, Lady Zheng, became slaves in the inner palace. After Shangguan Wan'er grew up, she eventually became a trusted secretary for Empress Wu.)

For eighteen years, Empress Wu would sit behind a pearl screen behind Emperor Gaozong at imperial meetings. She heard all the reports and ruled on all the important matters of state, and since then Empress Wu became the actual power. Imperial powers often fell into her hands; she was effectively making the major decisions and even held court independently when the Emperor was unwell. In the absence of her husband, she gained vast powers and became a controversial and formidable figure with far-reaching influence. She and Emperor Gaozong were thereafter referred to as the "Two Saints." (二聖, Er Sheng).

Meanwhile, on Empress Wu's account, her mother Lady Yang had been made the Lady of Rong, and her older sister, now widowed, the Lady of Han. Her half-brothers Wu Yuanqing and Wu Yuanshuang and cousins Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun, despite the poor relationships that they had with Lady Yang, were promoted. But at a feast that Lady Yang held for them, Wu Weiliang offended Lady Yang by stating that they did not find it honorable for them to be promoted on account of Empress Wu. Empress Wu, therefore, requested to have them demoted to remote prefectures—outwardly to show modesty, but in reality to avenge the offense to her mother. Wu Yuanqing and Wu Yuanshuang died in effective exile. Meanwhile, in or before 666, Lady of Han died as well. After Lady of Han's death, Emperor Gaozong made her daughter the Lady of Wei and considered keeping her in the palace—possibly as a concubine. He did not immediately do so, as he feared that Empress Wu would be displeased. It was said that Empress Wu heard of this and was nevertheless displeased. She had her niece poisoned, by placing poison in food offerings that Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun had made and then blaming them for the death of the Lady of Wei. Wu Weiliang and Wu Huaiyun were executed.

In 670, Wu's mother, Lady Yang, died and by Emperor Gaozong's orders, all of the imperial officials and their wives attended her wake and mourned her. Later that year, with the realm suffering from a major drought, Empress Wu offered to be deposed which Emperor Gaozong rejected. He further posthumously honored Wu Shiyue (who had previously been posthumously honored as the Duke of Zhou) and Lady Yang by giving them the titles of the Prince and Princess of Taiyuan.

Meanwhile, the son of Empress Wu's older sister, the Lady of Han, (Wu's nephew) Helan Minzhi (賀蘭敏之) had been given the surname of Wu and allowed to inherit the title of Duke of Zhou. However, as it was becoming clear to Empress Wu that he suspected Empress Wu of murdering his sister, the Lady of Wei, Empress Wu began to take precautions against him. (Helan was also said to have had an incestuous relationship with his grandmother Lady Yang.) In 671, Helan Minzhi was accused of disobeying mourning regulations during the period of mourning for Lady Yang and raping the daughter of the official, Yang Sijian (楊思儉), whom Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu had previously selected to be the wife and crown princess for Li Hong. Helan Minzhi was exiled and either was executed in exile or committed suicide. In 674, Empress Wu had Wu Yuanshuang's son Wu Chengsi recalled from exile to inherit the title of Duke of Zhou.

Fighting in power and remove heirs

In 675, as Emperor Gaozong's illness worsened, he considered having Empress Wu formally rule as regent. The chancellor Hao Chujun and the official Li Yiyan both opposed this, and he did not formally make her regent. However, Empress Wu had accrued more political power than the Emperor Gaozong due to his absence.

Also in 675, a number of people would fall victim to Empress Wu's ire. Empress Wu had been displeased at the favor that Emperor Gaozong had shown his aunt, Princess Changle. Princess Changle was married the general, Zhao Gui (趙瓌) and had a daughter who became the wife and princess consort of Wu's third son Li Xiǎn, the Prince of Zhou. Princess Zhao was accused of unspecified crimes and placed under arrest, eventually starving to death. Zhao Gui and Princess Changle were exiled. Meanwhile, later that month, Li Hong, the Crown Prince—who urged Empress Wu not to exercise so much influence on Emperor Gaozong's governance and offended Empress Wu by requesting that his half-sisters, Consort Xiao's daughters, Princess Yiyang and Xuancheng (under house arrest) be allowed to marry—died suddenly. Traditional historians generally believed that Empress Wu poisoned Li Hong to death. Li Xián, then carrying the title of Prince of Yong, was created crown prince. Meanwhile, Consort Xiao's son Li Sujie and another son of Emperor Gaozong's, Li Shangjin (李上金), were repeatedly accused of crimes by Empress Wu and were subsequently demoted.

Soon, Empress Wu's relationship with Li Xián also deteriorated because Li Xián had become unsettled after hearing rumors that he was not born to Empress Wu—but to her sister, the Lady of Han. When Empress Wu heard of his fearfulness, she became angry with him. Furthermore, the sorcerer Ming Chongyan (明崇儼), whom both she and Emperor Gaozong respected, had stated that Li Xián was unsuitable to inherit the throne and was assassinated in 679. The assassins were not caught—causing Wu to suspect that Li Xián was behind the assassination. In 680, Li Xián was accused of crimes and during an investigation by the officials Xue Yuanchao, Pei Yan, and Gao Zhizhou, a large number of weaponry was found in Li Xián's palace. Empress Wu formally accused Li Xián of treason and the assassination of Ming. Li Xián was deposed and exiled.

After the exile of Li Xián, his younger brother Li Xiǎn name but different Chinese characters (now renamed Li Zhe) was named crown prince.

In 681, Princess Taiping was married to Xue Shao (薛紹), the son of Emperor Gaozong's sister Princess Chengyang, in a grand ceremony. Empress Wu, initially unimpressed with the lineages of Xue Shao's brothers' wives, wanted to order his brothers to divorce their wives—stopping only after it was pointed out to her that Lady Xiao, the wife of Xue Shao's older brother Xue Yi (薛顗), was a grandniece of the deceased chancellor Xiao Yu.

In late 683, Emperor Gaozong died while at Luoyang. Li Zhe took the throne (as Emperor Zhongzong), but Empress Wu retained the real authority as empress dowager and regent.

Empress dowager

Plenipotentiary regent for Emperor Zhongzong

Upon the death of her husband Emperor Gaozong, Wu became empress dowager (皇太后, húangtàihòu) and then regent and she automatically gained full power over the empire. She had the power to remove and install emperors. Just as before, government decisions were made by her. Wu had already poisoned the crown prince Li Hong and had enough other princes exiled that her third son, Li Zhe, was made heir apparent. Furthermore, Gaozong's will included provisions that Li Zhe should ascend immediately to the imperial throne, he should look to Empress Wu in regards to any important matter, either military or civil, and Empress Wu should claim the senior authority in the Empire for herself. In the second month of 684, Li Zhe ascended to the imperial throne, known as his temple name Zhongzong, for a short six weeks.

The new emperor was married to a woman of the Wei family. Because Zhongzong was as weak and incompetent as his father, the new Empress sought to place herself in the same position of great authority that Empress Wu had enjoyed.

Immediately, Emperor Zhongzong showed signs of disobeying Empress Dowager Wu. Emperor Zhongzong was under the thumb of his wife, Empress Wei. Under her influence, the Emperor, appointed his father-in-law as prime minister. He also tried to make his father-in-law Shizhong (侍中, the head of the examination bureau of government, 門下省, Menxia Sheng, and a post considered one for a chancellor) and gave a mid-level office to his wet nurse's son—despite stern opposition by the chancellor Pei Yan, at one point remarking to Pei:

Pei reported this to Empress Dowager Wu, and she, after planning with Pei, Liu Yizhi, and the generals Cheng Wuting (程務挺) and Zhang Qianxu (張虔勖) deposed Emperor Zhongzong and replaced him with her youngest son Li Dan, the Prince of Yu (as Emperor Ruizong). Empress Dowager Wu had Zhongzong's father-in-law, Wei Xuanzhen (韋玄貞), brought up on charges of treason. Wei Xuanzhen was sent into seclusion. Emperor Zhongzong was reduced to the title of Prince of Luling and exiled. Empress Dowager Wu also sent the general, Qiu Shenji (丘神勣) to Li Xián's place in exile and forced Li Xián to commit suicide.

Plenipotentiary regent for Emperor Ruizong

Wu had her youngest son Li Dan made emperor, known as his temple name Ruizong. She was the ruler, however, both in substance and appearance. Wu did not even follow the customary pretense of hiding behind a screen or curtain and, in whispers, issued commands for the nominal ruler to formally announce. Ruizong never moved into the imperial quarters, appeared at no imperial function, and remained a virtual prisoner in the inner quarters.

Although Emperor Ruizong held the title of emperor, Empress Dowager Wu firmly controlled the imperial court, and the officials were not allowed to meet with Emperor Ruizong, nor was he allowed to rule on matters of state. Rather, the matters of state were ruled on by Empress Dowager Wu. At the suggestion of her nephew Wu Chengsi, she also expanded the ancestral shrine of the Wu ancestors and gave them greater posthumous honors.

In 686, Empress Dowager Wu offered to return imperial authorities to Emperor Ruizong, but Emperor Ruizong, knowing that she did not truly intend to do so, declined, and she continued to exercise imperial authority.

Soon thereafter, Li Ji's grandson Li Jingye, the Duke of Ying, who had been disaffected by his own exile, started a rebellion at Yang Prefecture (揚州, roughly modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu). The rebellion initially drew much popular support in the region, however, Li Jingye progressed slowly in his attack and did not take advantage of that popular support. Meanwhile, Pei suggested to Empress Dowager Wu that she return imperial authority to the Emperor and argued that doing so would cause the rebellion to collapse on its own. This offended her, and she accused him of being complicit with Li Jingye and had him executed; she also demoted, exiled, and killed a number of officials who, when Pei was arrested, tried to speak on his behalf. She sent a general, Li Xiaoyi (李孝逸), to attack Li Jingye, and while Li Xiaoyi was initially unsuccessful, he pushed on at the urging of his assistant Wei Yuanzhong and eventually was able to crush Li Jingye's forces. Li Jingye fled and was killed in flight.

By 685, Empress Dowager Wu began to carry on an affair with the Buddhist monk Huaiyi and during the next few years, Huaiyi would be bestowed with progressively greater honors.

Meanwhile, she installed copper mailboxes outside the imperial government buildings to encourage the people of the realm to report secretly on others, as she suspected many officials of opposing her. Exploiting these beliefs of hers, secret police officials, including Suo Yuanli, Zhou Xing, and Lai Junchen, began to rise in power and to carry out systematic false accusations, tortures, and executions of individuals.

In 688, Empress Dowager Wu was set to make sacrifices to the deity of the Luo River (洛水, flowing through the Henan province city of Luoyang, then the "Eastern Capital"). Wu summoned senior members of Tang's Li imperial clan to Luoyang. The imperial princes worried that she planned to slaughter them and secure the throne for herself: thus, they plotted to resist her. Before a rebellion could be comprehensively planned out, however, Li Zhen and his son Li Chong, the Prince of Langye rose first, at their respective posts as prefects of Yu Prefecture (豫州, roughly modern Zhumadian, Henan) and Bo Prefecture (博州, roughly modern Liaocheng, Shandong). The other princes were not yet ready, however, and did not rise, and forces sent by Empress Dowager Wu and the local forces crushed Li Chong and Li Zhen's forces quickly. Empress Dowager Wu took this opportunity to arrest Emperor Gaozong's granduncles Li Yuanjia (李元嘉) the Prince of Han, Li Lingkui (李靈夔) the Prince of Lu, and Princess Changle, as well as many other members of the Li clan and she, forced them to commit suicide. Even Princess Taiping's husband Xue Shao was implicated and starved to death. In the subsequent years, there continued to be many politically motivated massacres of officials and Li clan members.

In 690, Wu took the final step to become the empress regnant of the newly proclaimed Zhou dynasty, and the title Huangdi. Traditional Chinese order of succession (akin to the Salic law in Europe) did not allow a woman to ascend the throne, but Wu Zetian was determined to quash the opposition and the use of the secret police did not subside, but continued, after her taking the throne. While her organization of the civil service system was criticized for its laxity of the promotion of officials, nonetheless, Wu Zetian was considered capable of evaluating the performance of the officials once they were in office. The Song dynasty historian Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, commented:

Reign as Empress regnant

In 690, Wu had Emperor Ruizong yield the throne to her and established the Zhou dynasty, with herself as the imperial ruler (Huangdi).

The early part of her reign was characterized by secret police terror, which moderated as the years went by. She was, on the other hand, recognized as a capable and attentive ruler even by traditional historians who despised her, and her ability at selecting capable men to serve as officials was admired throughout the rest of the Tang dynasty as well as in subsequent dynasties.

Early reign (690–696)

Shortly after Wu Zetian took the throne, she elevated the status of Buddhism above that of Taoism, officially sanctioning Buddhism by building temples named Dayun Temple (大雲寺) in each prefecture belonging to the capital regions of the two capitals Luoyang and Chang'an, and created nine senior monks as dukes. She also enshrined seven generations of Wu ancestors at the imperial ancestral temple, although she also continued to offer sacrifices to the Tang emperors Gaozu, Taizong, and Gaozong.

She faced the issue of succession. At the time she took the throne, she created Li Dan, the former Emperor Ruizong, crown prince, and bestowed the name of Wu on him. The official Zhang Jiafu, however, convinced the commoner Wang Qingzhi (王慶之) to start a petition drive to make her nephew Wu Chengsi crown prince, arguing that an emperor named Wu should pass the throne to a member of the Wu clan. Wu Zetian was tempted to do so, and when the chancellors Cen Changqian and Ge Fuyuan opposed sternly, they, along with fellow chancellor Ouyang Tong, were executed. Nevertheless, she declined Wang's request to make Wu Chengsi crown prince, but for a time allowed Wang to freely enter the palace to see her. On one occasion, however, when Wang angered her by coming to the palace too much, she asked the official Li Zhaode to batter Wang as punishment—but Li Zhaode exploited the opportunity to batter Wang to death, and his group of petitioners scattered. Li Zhaode then persuaded Wu Zetian to keep Li Dan as crown prince—pointing out that a son was closer in relations than a nephew, and also that if Wu Chengsi became emperor, Emperor Gaozong would never again be worshiped. Wu Zetian agreed, and for some time did not reconsider the matter. Further, at Li Zhaode's warning that Wu Chengsi was becoming too powerful, Wu Zetian stripped Wu Chengsi of his chancellor authority and bestowed on him largely honorific titles without authority.

Meanwhile, the power of the secret police officials continued to increase, until they appeared to be curbed starting in about 692, when Lai Junchen was foiled in his attempt to have the chancellors Ren Zhigu, Di Renjie, Pei Xingben, and other officials Cui Xuanli (崔宣禮), Lu Xian (盧獻), Wei Yuanzhong, and Li Sizhen (李嗣眞) executed, as Di, under arrest, had hidden a secret petition inside a change of clothes and had it submitted by his son Di Guangyuan (狄光遠). The seven still were exiled, but after this incident, particularly at the urging of Li Zhaode, Zhu Jingze, and Zhou Ju (周矩), the waves of politically motivated massacres decreased, although they did not end entirely. Wu Zetian is famous for utilizing talents. She utilized imperial examination system to find talents from poor people or people without backgrounds. Hence, she could stabilize her regime.

Also in 692, Wu Zetian commissioned the general Wang Xiaojie to attack the Tibetan Empire, and Wang recaptured the four garrisons of the Western Regions that had fallen to the Tibetan Empire in 670 – Kucha, Yutian, Kashgar, and Suyab.

In 693, after Wu Zetian's trusted lady-in-waiting Wei Tuan'er (韋團兒), who hated Li Dan because he rejected her advances, falsely accused Li Dan's wife Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou of using witchcraft, Wu Zetian had Crown Princess Liu and Consort Dou killed. Li Dan, fearful that he was to be next, did not dare to speak of them. When Wei further planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, however, someone else informed on her, and she was executed. Wu Zetian nevertheless had Li Dan's sons demoted in their princely titles, and when the officials Pei Feigong (裴匪躬) and Fan Yunxian (范雲仙) were accused of secretly meeting Li Dan, she executed Pei and Fan and further, barred officials from meeting Li Dan. There were then accusations that Li Dan was plotting treason, and under Wu Zetian's direction, Lai launched an investigation. Lai arrested Li Dan's servants and tortured them—and the torture was such that many of them were ready to falsely implicate themselves and Li Dan. One of Li Dan's servants, An Jincang, however, proclaimed Li Dan's innocence and cut his own belly open to swear to that fact. When Wu Zetian heard of what An did, she had doctors attend to An and barely save his life, and then ordered Lai to end the investigation, thus saving Li Dan.

In 694, Li Zhaode, who had become powerful after Wu Chengsi's removal, was thought to be too powerful and Wu Zetian removed him. Also around this time, she became highly impressed with a group of mystic individuals—the hermit Wei Shifang (on whom she bestowed a chancellor title briefly), who claimed to be more than 350 years old; an old Buddhist nun who claimed to be a Buddha and capable of predicting the future; and a non-Han man who claimed to be 500 years old. During this time, Wu briefly claimed to be and adopted the cult imagery of Maitreya in order to build popular support for her reign.

In 695, however, after the imperial meeting hall (明堂 ) and the Heavenly Hall ( 天堂 ) were burned by Huaiyi (who was jealous at Wu Zetian's taking on another lover, the imperial physician Shen Nanqiu (沈南璆), Wu Zetian became angry at these individuals for failing to predict the fire; the old nun and her students were arrested and made into slaves; Wei committed suicide; and the old non-Han man fled. Subsequently, she also put Huaiyi to death. After this incident, she appeared to pay less attention to mysticism and became even more dedicated than before to the affairs of state.

Middle reign (696–701)

Wu Zetian's administration was soon in for various troubles on the western and then northern borders. In spring 696, an army she sent, commanded by Wang Xiaojie and Lou Shide against the Tibetan Empire, was soundly defeated by Tibetan generals, the brothers Gar Trinring Tsendro (論欽陵 ) and Gar Tsenba ( 論贊婆 ), and as a result, she demoted Wang to commoner rank and Lou to be a low level prefectural official, although she eventually restored both of them to general positions. In April of the same year, Wu Zetian recast the Nine Tripod Cauldrons, the symbol of ultimate power in ancient China, to reinforce her authority.

A much more serious threat arose in summer 696. The Khitan chieftains Li Jinzhong and Sun Wanrong, brothers-in-law, angry over the mistreatment of the Khitan people by the Zhou official Zhao Wenhui (趙文翽), the prefect of Ying Prefecture (營州 , roughly Zhaoyang County, Liaoning), rebelled, with Li assuming the title of Wushang Khan (無上可汗). Armies that Wu Zetian sent to suppress Li and Sun's rebellion were defeated by Khitan forces, which in turn attacked Zhou proper. Meanwhile, Qapaghan Qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate offered to submit, and yet was also launching attacks against Zhou and Khitan. The attacks included one against the Khitan base of operations during the winter of 696, shortly after Li's death, which resulted in capturing Li's and Sun's families and temporarily halted Khitan operations against Zhou. Sun, after taking over as khan and reorganizing Khitan forces, again attacked Zhou territory and had many victories over Zhou forces, including a battle during which Wang Shijie was killed. Wu Zetian tried to allay the situation by making peace with Ashina Mochuo at fairly costly terms—the return of Tujue people who had previously submitted to Zhou and providing Ashina Mochuo with seeds, silk, tools, and iron. In summer 697, Ashina Mochuo launched another attack on Khitan's base of operations, and this time, after his attack, Khitan forces collapsed and Sun was killed in flight, ending the Khitan threat.

Meanwhile, also in 697, Lai Junchen, who had at one point lost power but then had returned to power, falsely accused Li Zhaode (who had been pardoned) of crimes, and then planned to falsely accuse Li Dan, Li Zhe, the Wu clan princes, and Princess Taiping, of treason. The Wu clan princes and Princess Taiping acted first against him, accusing him of crimes, and he and Li Zhaode were executed together. After Lai's death, the reign of the secret police largely ended. Gradually, many of the victims of Lai and the other secret police officials were exonerated posthumously. Meanwhile, around this time, Wu Zetian began relationships with two new lovers—the brothers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, who became honored within the palace and were eventually created dukes.

Around 698, Wu Chengsi and another nephew of Wu Zetian's, Wu Sansi, the Prince of Liang, were repeatedly making attempts to have officials persuade Wu Zetian to create one of them crown prince—again citing the reason that an emperor should pass the throne to someone of the same clan. Di Renjie, who by now had become a trusted chancellor, was firmly against the idea, however, and proposed that Li Zhe be recalled instead. He was supported in this by fellow chancellors Wang Fangqing and Wang Jishan, as well as Wu Zetian's close advisor Ji Xu, who further persuaded the Zhang brothers to support the idea as well. In spring 698, Wu Zetian agreed and recalled Li Zhe from exile. Soon, Li Dan offered to yield the crown prince position to Li Zhe, and Wu Zetian created Li Zhe crown prince. She soon changed his name back to Li Xiǎn and then Wu Xian.

Later, Ashina Mochuo demanded a Tang dynasty prince for marriage to his daughter, part of a plot to join his family with the Tang, displace the Zhou, and restore Tang rule over China (under his influence). When Wu Zetian sent a member of her own family, grandnephew Wu Yanxiu (武延秀), to marry Mochuo's daughter instead, he rejected him. Ashina Mochuo had no intention to cement the peace treaty with a marriage; instead, when Wu Yanxiu arrived, he detained Wu Yanxiu and then launched a major attack on Zhou, advancing as far south as Zhao Prefecture (趙州, in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei) before withdrawing.

In 699, however, at least the Tibetan threat would cease. Emperor Tridu Songtsen, unhappy that Gar Trinring was monopolizing power, took an opportunity when Trinring was away from the capital Lhasa to slaughter Trinring's associates. He then defeated Trinring in battle, and Trinring committed suicide. Gar Tsenba and Trinring's son, Lun Gongren (論弓仁), surrendered to Zhou. After this, the Tibetan Empire was under internal turmoil for several years, and there was peace for Zhou on the border.

Also in 699, Wu Zetian, realizing that she was growing old, feared that after her death, Li Xian and the Wu clan princes would not be able to have peace with each other, and she made him, Li Dan, Princess Taiping, Princess Taiping's second husband Wu Youji (a nephew of hers), the Prince of Ding, and other Wu clan princes to swear an oath to each other.

Late reign (701–705)

As Wu Zetian grew older, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong became increasingly powerful, and even the princes of the Wu clan flattered them. She also increasingly relied on them to handle the affairs of state. This was secretly discussed and criticized by her grandson Li Chongrun, the Prince of Shao, (Li Xian's son), granddaughter Li Xianhui (李仙蕙) the Lady Yongtai (Li Chongrun's sister), and Li Xianhui's husband Wu Yanji (武延基) the Prince of Wei (Wu Zetian's grandnephew and Wu Chengsi's son), but somehow the discussion was leaked, and Zhang Yizhi reported this to Wu Zetian. She ordered the three of them to commit suicide.

Despite her old age, however, Wu Zetian continued to be interested in finding talented officials and promoting them. Individuals she promoted in her old age included, among others, Cui Xuanwei and Zhang Jiazhen.

By 703, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong had become resentful of Wei Yuanzhong, who by now was a senior chancellor, for dressing down their brother Zhang Changyi (張昌儀) and rejecting the promotion of another brother Zhang Changqi (張昌期). They also were fearful that if Wu Zetian died, Wei would find a way to execute them, and therefore accused Wei and Gao Jian (高戩), an official favored by Princess Taiping, of speculating on Wu Zetian's old age and death. They initially got Wei's subordinate Zhang Shuo to agree to corroborate the charges, but once Zhang Shuo was before Wu Zetian, he instead accused Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong of forcing him to bear false witness. As a result, Wei, Gao, and Zhang Shuo were exiled, but escaped death.

Removal and death

In autumn of 704, there began to be accusations of corruption levied against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, as well as their brothers Zhang Changqi, Zhang Changyi, and Zhang Tongxiu (張同休). Zhang Tongxiu and Zhang Changyi were demoted, but even though the officials Li Chengjia (李承嘉) and Huan Yanfan advocated that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong be removed as well, Wu Zetian, taking the suggestion of the chancellor Yang Zaisi, did not remove them. Subsequently, charges of corruption against Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were renewed by the chancellor Wei Anshi.

In winter 704, Wu Zetian became seriously ill for a period, and only the Zhang brothers were allowed to see her; the chancellors were not. This led to speculation that Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong were plotting to take over the throne, and there were repeated accusations of treason. Once her condition improved, Cui Xuanwei advocated that only Li Xian and Li Dan be allowed to attend to her—a suggestion that she did not accept. After further accusations against the Zhang brothers by Huan and Song Jing, Wu Zetian allowed Song to investigate, but before the investigation was completed, she issued a pardon for Zhang Yizhi, derailing Song's investigation.

By spring 705, Wu Zetian was seriously ill again. Zhang Jianzhi, Jing Hui, and Yuan Shuji, planned a coup to kill the Zhang brothers. They convinced the generals Li Duozuo, Li Dan (李湛, note different character than the former emperor), and Yang Yuanyan (楊元琰) and another chancellor, Yao Yuanzhi, to be involved. With agreement from Li Xian as well, they acted on 20 February, killing Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong, and then they had Changsheng Hall (長生殿), where Wu Zetian was residing, surrounded. They then reported to her that the Zhang brothers had been executed for treason, and they then forced her to yield the throne to Li Xian. On 21 February, an edict was issued in her name that made Li Xian regent, and on 22 February, an edict was issued in her name passing the throne to Li Xian. On 23 February, Li Xian formally retook the throne, and the next day, Wu Zetian, under heavy guard, was moved to the subsidiary palace, Shangyang Palace (上陽宮), but was nevertheless honored with the title of Empress Regent Zetian Dasheng (則天大聖皇帝). On 3 March, the Tang dynasty was restored, ending the Zhou.

She died on 16 December, and, pursuant to a final edict issued in her name, was no longer referred to as empress regnant, but instead as Empress Consort Zetian Dasheng (則天大聖皇后). In 706, Wu Zetian's son Emperor Zhongzong had Wu Zetian interred in a joint burial with his father Emperor Gaozong at the Qianling Mausoleum, located near the capital Chang'an on Mount Liang. Emperor Zhongzong also buried at Qianling his brother Li Xián, son Li Chongrun, and daughter Li Xianhui (李仙蕙) the Lady Yongtai (posthumously honored as the Princess Yongtai)—victims of Wu Zetian's wrath.

Wu Zhou dynasty

In 690, Wu Zetian founded the Wu Zhou dynasty, named after the historical Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). The traditional historical view, however, is to discount the Wu Zhou dynasty: dynasties by definition involve the succession of rulers from one family: the Wu Zhou dynasty was founded by her, and ended within her lifetime, with her abdication in 705. This does not meet the traditional concept of a dynasty. The alternative, is to view the Wu Zhou dynasty as the revival of the historical Zhou dynasty, which was ruled (at least nominally) by the Ji family, almost a thousand years before. Either way, Wu Zhou dynasty is best viewed as a brief interruption of the Li family's Tang dynasty, rather than as a fully realized dynasty. Her claim of founding a new dynasty, however, was little opposed at the time (690). The fifteen-year period which Wu Zetian designated as her "Zhou Dynasty" considered in the context of nearly a half century of de facto and de jure rule (c. 654–705) reveals a remarkable and still debated period of history. In this context, designating a new dynasty, with her as its emperor can be seen as part of her power politics, and as the culmination of her period of ruling. Though the fifteen years of Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty had its own notable characteristics, these are difficult to separate from Wu's reign of power, which lasted for about half of a century.

Wu Zetian's consolidation of power in part relied on a system of spies. She used informants to choose people to eliminate, a process which peaked in 697, with the wholesale demotion, exile, or killing of various aristocratic families and scholars, furthermore prohibiting their sons from holding office.

One apparatus of government which fell into Wu's power was the imperial examination system: the basic theory and practice of which was to recruit into government service those men who were the best educated, talented, and having the best potential to perform their duties, and to do so by testing a pool of candidates in order to determine this objectively. This pool was male only, and the qualified pool of candidates and resulting placements into official positions was on a relatively small scale at the time of Wu's assuming control of government. The official tests examined such things considered important for functionaries of the highly developed, bureaucratic government structure of the current imperial government. The qualities sought in a candidate for government service included determining the potential official's level of literacy in terms of reading and writing as well as his possession of the specific knowledge considered necessary and desirable for a governmental official, such as Confucian precepts on the nature of virtue and theory on the proper ordering of and relationships within society. Wu Zetian continued to use the imperial examination system to recruit civil servants, and she introduced major changes in regard to the system that she inherited, including increasing the pool of candidates permitted to take the test, by allowing commoners and gentry, who were previously disqualified by their background, to take them. Another thing she did was to expand the governmental examination system and to greatly increase the importance of this method of recruiting government officials, which she did in 693. Wu provided increased opportunity for the representation within government to people of the North China Plain, versus people of the northwestern aristocratic families, (whom she decimated, anyway); and, the successful candidates who were recruited through the examination system became an elite group within her government. The historical details surrounding and the consequences of Wu Zetian's promoting a new group of people from previously disenfranchised backgrounds into prominence as powerful governmental officials as well as the role of the examination system in this regard, remains a matter of debate for scholars of this subject.

Wu Zetian eliminated many of her real, potential, or perceived rivals to power by means of death (including execution, suicide by command, and more-or-less directly killing people), demotion, and exile. Mostly this was carried out by her secret police, led by individuals like Wao Ganjun and Lai Junchen—who were known to have written a document called the Manual of Accusation, which detailed steps for interrogation and obtaining confessions by torture. One of these methods, the "Dying Swine's Melancholy" (死猪愁), which merely indicated a level of pain inflicted by a torture device, seems to have been conflated in the years following Wu's death with the story of the "human swine" torture conducted by Empress Lü Zhi, in which the victim had limbs and tongue amputated, was force-fed, and left to wallow in his own excrement.

Wu targeted various individuals, including many in her own family and her extended family. In reaction to an attempt to remove her from power, in 684, she massacred twelve entire collateral branches of the imperial family. Besides this, she also altered the ancient balance of power in China, dating back to the Qin dynasty. The old area of the Qin state was later referred to as Guanzhong, literally, the area "within the fortified mountain passes". It was from this area of northwest China that the Ying family of Qin arose to conquer, unifying China into its first historical empire. During the Han dynasty, Sima Qian records in his Shiji that Guanzhong had three-tenths of China's population, but six-tenths of its wealth. Additionally, at the beginning of Wu Zetian's period of ascendency, Guanzhong was still the stronghold of the most nationally powerful aristocratic families, despite the fact that economic development in other parts of China had improved the lot of families in other regions. The Guangzhong aristocracy was not willing to relinquish their hold on the reins of government, however; while, at the same time, some of the more newly wealthy families in other areas, such as the North China Plain or Hubei were eager for a larger share of national power of their own. Most of the opposition to Wu was from the Guangzhong families of northwest China. Accordingly, she repressed them, instead favoring less privileged families, thus raising to the ranks of power many talented, but less aristocratic families, often recruited through the official examination system. Many of those so favored originated from the North China plain. Through a process of eliminating or diminishing the power of the established aristocracy, whom she perceived as disloyal to her, and establishing a reformed upper class in China loyal to her, Wu Zetian made major social changes which are still being evaluated by historians.

Many of Wu Zetian's measures were of a popular nature, and helped her to gain support for her rule. Wu Zetian came to power during a time in China in which the people were fairly contented, the administration was run well, and the economy was characterized by rising living standards. Wu Zetian, as far as the masses were for the most part concerned, continued in this manner. She was determined that free, self-sufficient farmers would continue to work on their own farm land, so she periodically used the juntian, equal-field system, together with updated census figures to ensure fair land allocations, re-allocating as necessary. Much of her success was due to her various edicts (including those known as her "Acts of Grace") which helped to satisfy the needs of the lower classes through various acts of relief, her widening recruitment to government service to include previously excluded gentry and commoners, and by her generous promotions and pay raises for the lower ranks.

Wu Zetian used her military and diplomatic skills to enhance her position. The fubing system of self-supportive soldier-farmer colonies, which provided local militia and labor services for her government, allowed her to maintain her armed forces at reduced expense. She also pursued a policy of military action to expand the empire to its furthest extent ever up to that point in Central Asia. Expansion efforts against Tibet and to the northwest were less successful. Allying with the Korean kingdom of Silla against Goguryeo with the promise of ceding Goguryeo's territory to Silla, Chinese forces occupied Goguryeo after its defeat, and even began to occupy Silla territory. Silla resisted the imposition of Chinese rule, and by allying with Goguryeo and Baekche, was able to expel its former ally from the peninsula. Hong argues that Silla's success was in part due to a shift in Empress Wu's focus to Tibet and inadequate support for the forces in the Korean peninsula. Despite victories against Tibetans and Turks: however, in 694, Wu's forces decisively defeated the Tibetan–Western Turk alliance, and retook the Four Garrisons of Anxi, lost in 668.

Another significant event of Wu Zetian's reign was 651, shortly after the Muslim conquest of Persia, when the first Arab ambassador arrived in China.

Religion

The Great Cloud Sutra

Wu Zetian used her political powers to harness from Buddhist practices a strategy to build sovereignty and legitimacy to her throne while decisively establishing the Zhou dynasty in a society under the Confucian and patriarchal ideals. One of the first steps taken by Wu Zetian to legitimize her ascension to the throne was to proclaim herself as the reincarnation of the Devi of Pure Radiance (Jingguang tiannü) through a series of prophecies. In 690, she sought out the support of the monk Xue Huaiyi, Wu's reputed lover, and other nine orthodox Buddhist monks to compose the apocryphal Commentary on the Meanings of the Prophecies About the Divine Sovereign in the Great Cloud Sutra (Dayunjing Shenhuang Shouji Yishu).

Translated from a late fourth-century version in Sanskrit to Chinese, the original Great Cloud Sutra (Dayunjing) accentuated in Wu Zetian's Commentary had fascicles describing a conversation between Buddha and the Devi of Pure Radiance. In the sutra, Buddha foretells to Jingguang that he would be a bodhisattva reincarnated in the body of a woman in order to convert beings and rule over the territory of a country. Wu Zetian's Buddhist supporters meticulously propagated the Commentary "on the eve of her accession to the dragon throne" while seeking to justify the various events that led Wu Zetian to occupy the position of Huangdi as a female ruler and bodhisattva. Since gender in the Buddhist Devi worlds have no standard form, Wu Zetian would later take a further step to transcend her gender limitations by identifying herself as the incarnation of two important male Buddhist divinities, Maitreya and Vairocana. Wu Zetian's narrative was intentionally crafted to persuade the Confucian establishment, circumvent the Five Impediments that restricted women from holding political and religious power, and gain public support.

Sacrifice on Mount Tai

In relation to Daoism, there are records that points Wu Zetian's participation in important religious rituals, such as the tou long on Mount Song, and feng and shan on Mount Tai. One of the most important rituals was performed in 666. When Emperor Gaozong offered sacrifices to the deities of heaven and earth, Empress Wu, in an unprecedented action, offered sacrifices after him, with Princess Dowager Yan, mother of Emperor Gaozong's brother Li Zhen, Prince of Yue, offering sacrifices after her. Wu Zetian's procession of ladies up Mount Tai conspicuously linked Wu with the most sacred traditional rites of the Chinese empire. Another important performance was made in 700 where Wu Zetian conducted the tou long Daoist expiatory rite. Wu Zetian's participation in the rituals not only had religious reasons behind it, but her political reasons were also clear. Such ceremonies served to consolidate Wu Zetian's life in politics and depict she possessed the Mandate of Heaven.

Literature

North Gate Scholars

Toward the end of Gaozong's life, Wu began engaging a number of mid-level officials who had literary talent, including Yuan Wanqing (元萬頃), Liu Yizhi, Fan Lübing, Miao Chuke (苗楚客), Zhou Simao (周思茂), and Han Chubin (韓楚賓), to write a number of works on her behalf, including the Biographies of Notable Women (列女傳), Guidelines for Imperial Subjects (臣軌), and New Teachings for Official Staff Members (百僚新誡). Collectively, they became known as the "North Gate Scholars" (北門學士), because they served inside the palace, which was to the north of the imperial government buildings, and Empress Wu sought advice from them to divert the powers of the chancellors.

The "Twelve Suggestions"

Around the new year 675, Empress Wu submitted twelve suggestions. One was that the work of Laozi (whose family name was Li and to whom the Tang imperial clan traced its ancestry), Tao Te Ching, should be added to the required reading for imperial university students. Another was that a three-year mourning period should be observed for a mother's death in all cases, not only in those cases when the father was no longer alive. Emperor Gaozong praised her for her suggestions and adopted them.

Modified Chinese characters

In 690, Empress Dowager Wu's cousin's son Zong Qinke submitted a number of modified Chinese characters intended to showcase Empress Dowager Wu's greatness. She adopted them, and she took one of the modified characters, Zhao (曌), to be her formal name (i.e., the name by which the people would exercise naming taboo on). 曌 was made from two other characters: Ming (明) on top, meaning "light" or "clarity", and Kong (空) on the bottom, meaning "sky." The implication appeared to be that she would be like the light shining from the sky. (Zhao (照), meaning "shine", from which 曌 was derived, might have been her original name, but evidence of that is inconclusive.) Later that year, after successive petition drives, initially started by the low-level official Fu Youyi, began to occur in waves, asking her to take the throne, Emperor Ruizong offered to take the name of Wu as well. On 18 August 690, she approved of the requests. She changed the name of the state to Zhou, claiming ancestry from the Zhou dynasty, and took the throne as Empress Regnant (with the title of Empress Regnant Shengshen (聖神皇帝), literally "Divine and Sacred Emperor or Empress Regnant"). Emperor Ruizong was deposed and made crown prince with the atypical title of Huangsi (皇嗣). This thus interrupted the Tang dynasty, and she became the first (and only) woman to reign over China as empress regnant.

Poetry

Beside her own literary work, Wu Zetian's court was a focus of literary creativity. Forty-six of Wu's poems are collected in the Quan Tangshi "Collected Tang Poems" and sixty-one essays under her name are recorded in the Quan Tangwen "Collected Tang Essays". Although a lot of those writings serve political ends, there is one poem in which she laments her mother after she died and expresses her despair at not being able to see her again.

During Wu Zetian's reign, the imperial court produced various works for which she was a sponsor, such as the anthology of the poetry of her court known as the Zhuying ji "Collection of Precious Glories", which contained poems by Cui Rong, Li Jiao, Zhang Yue, and others, arranged according to the official rank at the court of the individuals included. Among the literary developments that took place during the time of Wu Zetian (and partly at her court) was the final stylistic development of the "new style" poetry of the regulated verse (jintishi), by the poetic pair Song Zhiwen and Shen Quanqi.

Wu Zetian also engaged in patronage of scholars by founding an institute to produce the Collection of Biographies of Famous Women. The development of what is considered to be characteristic Tang poetry is traditionally ascribed to Chen Zi'ang, one of Wu's ministers.

Literary allusions

Considering the events of her life, literary allusions to Wu Zetian may carry several connotations: a woman who has inappropriately overstepped her bounds, the hypocrisy of preaching compassion while simultaneously engaging in a pattern of political corruption and vicious behavior and ruling by pulling strings in the background. For many centuries, Wu was used by the establishment as an example of what can go wrong when a woman is placed in charge.

Such sexist opposition to her was only lifted during the late 1960s when Mao Zedong's wife Jiang Qing rehabilitated Wu as part of a propaganda campaign to suggest she be considered as a successor to her ailing husband.

In his biography Wu, British author Jonathan Clements has pointed out that these wildly differing uses of a historical figure have often led to contradictory and even hysterical characterizations. Many alleged poisonings and other incidents, such as the premature death of her daughter, may have rational explanations that have been twisted by later opponents.

Evaluation

Quotes

The traditional Chinese historical view on Wu Zetian generally was mixed—admiring her for her abilities in governing the state, but vilifying her for her actions in seizing imperial power. Luo Binwang even wrote along these lines in a declaration during her lifetime, in support of Li Jingye's rebellion. Typical was a commentary by the Later Jin dynasty historian Liu Xu, the lead editor of the Old Book of Tang:

Some of the diversity in terms of points of agreement and even outright divergences in modern evaluations of Wu Zetian can be seen in the following quotes by modern non-Chinese authors:

Confucian viewpoints

Wu Zetian's rise and reign has been criticized harshly by Confucian historians, but has been viewed in a different and positive light after the 1950s.

In the early period of the Tang dynasty, because all the emperors were her direct descendants, the evaluation for Wu Zetian were relatively positive. Commentary in subsequent periods, however, especially the book Zizhi Tongjian compiled by Sima Guang, criticized Wu Zetian harshly. By the period of Southern Song dynasty, when Neo-Confucianism was firmly established as the mainstream political ideology of China, their ideology determined the evaluation for Wu Zetian.

Era names

Chancellors during reign

Wu Zetian had many chancellors during her reign as monarch of her self-proclaimed Zhou dynasty, many of them notable in their own right. (For full list see List of Chancellors of Wu Zetian).

Family

Ancestry

Modern depictions

Television

• Portrayed by Petrina Fung in the 1984 Hong-Kong TV series Empress Wu.

• Portrayed by Angela Pan in the 1985 Taiwanese TV series The Empress of the Dynasty.

• Portrayed by Liu Xiaoqing in the 1995 Chinese TV series Wu Zetian, in the 2007 TV series The Shadow of Empress Wu and in the 2011 TV series Secret History of Empress Wu.

• Portrayed by Gua Ah-leh in the 2000 Chinese TV series Palace of Desire.

• Portrayed by Qin Lan in the 2001 Chinese TV series Love Legend of the Tang Dynasty.

• Portrayed by Alyssa Chia in the 2003 Chinese TV series Lady Wu: The First Empress.

• Portrayed by Lü Zhong in the 2004 Chinese TV series Amazing Detective Di Renjie and its sequels Amazing Detective Di Renjie 2, Amazing Detective Di Renjie 3 and Mad Detective Di Renjie.

• Portrayed by Siqin Gaowa in the 2006 Chinese TV series Wu Zi Bei Ge.

• Portrayed by Yang Geum-seok in 2006–2007 KBS TV series Dae Jo Yeong.

• Portrayed by Rebecca Chan in the 2009 Chinese TV series The Greatness of a Hero.

• Portrayed by Yin Tao, Liu Xiaoqing and Siqin Gaowa in the 2011 Chinese TV series Secret History of Empress Wu.

• Portrayed by Wang Li Ke in the 2011 Chinese TV series Meng Hui Tang Chao.

• Portrayed by Kara Hui in the 2011 Chinese TV series Women of the Tang Dynasty and in the 2015 TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties 5.

• Portrayed by Zhang Ting in the 2011 Chinese TV series Beauty World.

• Portrayed by Liu Yuxin in the 2012 Chinese TV series Secret History of Princess Taiping.

• Portrayed by Fan Bingbing in the 2014 Chinese TV series The Empress of China.

• Portrayed by Sheren Tang in the 2014 Chinese TV series Cosmetology High.

• Portrayed by Ruby Lin in the 2014 Chinese TV series Young Sherlock.

• Portrayed by Sophie Wu in the 2015 episode of Horrible Histories.

• Portrayed by Jiao Junyan in the 2017 Chinese TV series Legendary Di Renjie.

Films

• Portrayed by Gu Lanjun in the 1939 Chinese movie The Empress Wu Tse-tien.

• Portrayed by Li Lihua in the 1963 Hong-Kong movie Empress Wu Tse-Tien.

• Portrayed by Carina Lau in the 2010 Chinese-Hong Kong movie Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame, its prequels Young Detective Dee: Rise of the Sea Dragon in 2013 and Detective Dee: The Four Heavenly Kings in 2018.

Video games

• Wu Zetian appears in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order as an Assassin class servant.

• Wu Zetian appears in the turn-based strategy game Civilization II and Civilization V as the leader of the Chinese civilization.

• Wu Zetian appears as a character in the mobile game Law of Creation as a front-row tank.

• Wu Zetian appears as a minister earned in the mobile game Call Me Emperor after getting first place in the cross server intimacy event.

• Wu Zetian appears in the mobile game Rise Of Kingdoms as a legendary Chinese civilization Commander.

• Wu Zetian appears as the highest-paying symbol in Wu Zetian, a slot machine published by Realtime Gaming

入宮

武氏本名無記載，為唐開國勳舊武士獲次女，母親楊氏為隋朝宗室楊達之女是武士獲繼室，不見禮于正室諸子。祖籍并州文水縣（今山西省文水縣），637年十四歲時（貞觀十一年十一月）因貌美而入後宮封為五品才人，唐太宗賜號武媚，後世訛稱武媚娘。武氏入宮之前向寡居的母親楊氏告別時說：「侍奉聖明天子，豈知非福？為何還要哭哭啼啼、作兒女之態呢？」

武才人與太宗的三位妃嬪燕德妃、楊婕妤、巢王妃楊氏俱為表親。而對于太宗時期武氏在宮中的生活細節，史書並沒有詳細的描述。僅見武氏在晚年時回憶自己為太宗馴馬一事。當時，太宗有名馬獅子驄，又肥又暴躁沒有能調教牠的人。武氏在太宗身邊侍候，對太宗說：「我能制服牠，但是須要三件東西：一是鐵鞭，二是鐵楇，三是匕首。用鐵鞭打它不服，就用楇打牠的頭；再不服，就用匕首割斷牠的喉嚨。」武氏稱太宗壯其之志。複自稱嘗侍太宗，得其書法之妙。

貞觀十七年（643年），太子李承乾被廢，晉王李治被立為太子。此後，在太子侍奉太宗湯藥之際，李治見到武才人並悅之。

出家與再入宮

貞觀二十三年（649年），唐太宗駕崩。武才人依唐後宮之例，入感業寺剃髮出家。永徽元年（650年）五月，唐高宗在太宗週年忌日入感業寺進香之時，與身為比丘尼的武氏相遇。當時與蕭淑妃爭寵的王皇后知悉後，便主動向高宗請求將武氏納入宮中，企圖以此打擊蕭淑妃。唐高宗早有此意，當即應允。永徽二年（651年）五月，唐高宗的孝服已滿，二十七歲的武氏還俗，再度入宮。入宮前武氏已經懷孕，入宮後生下兒子李弘。次年五月，被拜為二品昭儀。

永徽六年（655年）六月，後宮中有人放出不利王皇后之謠言，流傳王皇后與其母柳氏（宰相柳奭之姊，柳宗元同族）請來巫師，企圖用魘鎮之術將武昭儀詛咒而死亡。這謠言在無證據下傳到高宗之耳，高宗大怒，並將其母柳氏趕出皇宮，而且欲將武昭儀陞為一品宸妃（唐朝後宮四夫人中本來並無宸妃此封號，而原本的四夫人名額已滿，唐高宗為了武氏，才創宸妃封號），受到宰相韓瑗和來濟的反對，最後不能成事。不久，中書舍人李義府等人勾結武氏，得知高宗欲行廢皇后而立武昭儀消息，聯絡本已貶官不得再進的許敬宗、崔義玄、袁公瑜等人向唐高宗不斷請求立武昭儀為R|后，造成群臣支持的表象，廢立之意遂再次萌生。

武氏立后

永徽六年(655年）十月十三日，唐高宗又在李世勣等朝廷武勛的模稜兩可下，終於頒下詔書：以「陰謀下毒」的罪名，將王皇后和蕭淑妃廢為庶人，並加囚禁；她們的父母、兄弟等也被削爵免官，流放嶺南。七天以後，唐高宗再次下詔，將武昭儀立為皇后；與此同時，又將反對最大的宰相褚遂良貶為外州都督。因為忌諱武氏曾為父親太宗才人的事實，唐高宗在立后詔書中，稱武氏為父親所賜，「事同政君」。

顯慶四年（659年）四月，武后與唐高宗達成共識：將長孫無忌、于志寧、韓瑗、來濟等人削職免官，貶出京師。

並稱「二聖」

參政

顯慶五年（660年），唐高宗患上風疾之症，頭暈目眩，不能處理國家大事，遂命皇后武氏代理朝政。在麟德元年（664年），高宗與宰相上官儀商議，打算廢掉武氏皇后之位。但上官儀的廢后詔書還未草擬好，武后即已從宦官親信接到消息。她直接來到高宗面前追問此事，唐高宗不得已，便把責任推到上官儀身上。十二月，上官儀被逮捕入獄，不久，即被滅族。

乾封二年（667年）高宗因久疾，命太子弘監國。上元元年（674年）秋八月，武后和高宗並稱天皇天后，名為避先帝、先后之稱，實欲自尊。十二月，武后上表建議十二事：「一、勸農桑，薄賦徭。二、給復三輔地（免除長安及其附近地區之徭役）。三、息兵，以道德化天下。四、南、北中尚（政府手工工場）禁浮巧。五、省功費力役。六、廣言路。七、杜讒口。八、王公以降皆習《老子》。九、父在為母服齊衰（喪服）三年（過去是一年）。十、上元前勳官已給告身（委任狀）者，無追覈。十一、京官八品以上，益稟入（增加薪水）。十二、百官任事久，材高位下者，得進階（提級）申滯。」高宗詔皆施行之。武則天能夠重視農業生產，規定各州縣境內，「田疇墾闢，家有餘糧」者予以升獎；「為政苛濫，戶口流移」者必加懲罰。所編《兆人本業》農書，頒行天下，影響很大。而武則天執政期間，其宗教政策乃以佛教在道教之上。

上元二年（675年）三月，武后召集大批文人學士，大量修書，先後撰成《玄覽》、《古今內範》、《青宮紀要》、《少陽正範》、《維城典訓》、《紫樞要錄》、《鳳樓新誡》、《孝子傳》、《列女傳》、《內範要略》、《樂書要錄》、《百僚新誡》、《兆人本業》、《臣軌》等書。且密令這批學者參決朝廷奏議，以分宰相之權，時人謂之「北門學士」。時高宗風眩更甚，擬使武后攝政，宰相郝處俊說：「陛下奈何以高祖、太宗之天下，不傳之子孫而委之天后乎！」高宗才罷攝政之意。太子李弘深為高宗鍾愛，高宗欲禪位於太子，武后不滿；剛好太子因為蕭淑妃之女義陽、宣城二公主因母得罪武后而被幽禁掖庭宮中、年逾21而未嫁，奏請出閣，高宗許之，武后甚怒。不久太子死於合璧宮，時人以為武后所毒殺，但亦有說法稱李弘本來病弱而早夭。

廢立與稱制

弘道元年（683年）十二月，唐高宗病逝，臨終遺詔：太子李顯於柩前即位，軍國大事有不能裁決者，由武氏決定。四天以後，李顯即位，是為唐中宗。武后被尊為皇太后。

光宅元年（684年）二月，中宗欲以韋后父韋玄貞為侍中（宰相），裴炎力諫不聽，武后遂廢唐中宗為廬陵王，並遷於房州。立第四子豫王李旦為帝，是為唐睿宗，武后臨朝稱制，自專朝政。同年九月，徐敬業、徐敬猷兄弟聯合唐之奇、杜求仁等以扶支持廬陵王為號召，在揚州舉兵反武，十多天內就聚合了十萬部眾。武后當即以左玉鈐大將軍李孝逸為揚州道大總管，率兵三十萬，前往征討。十一月，徐敬業兵敗自殺。

垂拱二年（686年）三月，武后下令製造銅匭（銅製的小箱子），置於洛陽宮城之前，隨時接納臣下表疏。同時，又大開告密之門，規定任何人均可告密。凡屬告密之人，國家都要供給驛站車馬和飲食。即使是農夫樵人，武后都親自接見。所告之事，如果符合旨意，就可破格陞官。如所告並非事實，亦不會問罪。同時，武后又先後任用索元禮、周興、來俊臣、侯思止等一大批酷吏，掌管制獄，如果被告者一旦被投入此獄，酷吏們則使用各種酷刑審訊，能活著出獄的百無一二。這樣，隨著告密之風的日益興起，被酷吏刑訊拷打致死的人日漸增多。為獎勵告密，若有屬實，武后對告密者破例授官，以賣餅為生的侯思止，因舉發舒王李元名與恆州刺史裴貞謀反，被任命為游擊將軍、侍御史。王弘義，以無德行見稱，告鄉里謀反，擢授游擊將軍、殿中侍御史。

武后掌管李唐的社稷，翦除唐宗室，諸王不自安，欲起兵對抗。還未有共識的時候，博州刺史瑯邪王李沖，垂拱四年（688年）八月於博州（今山東聊城東北）舉兵。豫州刺史越王李貞起兵豫州（今河南汝南）呼應。武后分遣丘神勣、魏崇裕擊之。瑯邪王李沖起兵七日敗死；九月，越王李貞兵敗自殺。武后想盡除李氏諸王，使周興等審訊之，迫韓王李元嘉、魯王李靈夔、黃國公李譔、東莞郡公李融、常樂公主等自殺，親信等均被誅。

這年命令僧薛懷義率令萬多人，毀乾元殿，建明堂，花了近一年落成，高二百九十四尺，闊三百尺。共三層，上為圓蓋，有條九龍作捧著的姿態。上有鐵鳳，高一丈。飾以黃金，稱為「萬象神宮」。明堂既成，又命僧薛懷義鑄大像，大像的小指也可以容納數十人，於明堂北起五層高的天堂來收納這個大像。所花費用以萬億計，政府財政為之枯竭。是年武承嗣命人鑿白石為文曰：「聖母臨人，永昌帝業。」號稱在洛水中發現，獻給武后，武后大喜，命其石曰「寶圖」。之後武后加尊號為「聖母神皇」。

武后當政期間為了打擊門閥豪族對官位的壟斷，進一步發展收攏民心的科舉制度。唐太宗共錄取進士205人，高宗和武后統治期間共錄取一千餘人。平均每年錄取人數比貞觀時增加一倍以上。武后載初元年（690年）武后在洛城對貢士親發策問，是「殿試」之始。是年遣「存撫使」十人巡撫諸道，推舉有才之人，一年後共舉薦一百餘人，武后不問出身，全部加以接見，自稱量才任用，或為試鳳閣（中書省）舍人、給事中，或為試員外郎、侍御史、補闕、拾遺、校書郎，試官制度自此始，時人有「補闕連車載，拾遺平斗量，把推侍御史，腕脫校書郎。」之語。武后雖以官位收買人心，但對不稱己意的人亦會加以罷黜；號稱明察善斷，故當時一部份士大夫亦樂於為武后效力。

建國稱帝

次年（690年）七月，僧法明等撰《大雲經》四卷，說武后是彌勒菩薩化身下凡，應作為天下主人，武后下令頒行天下。命兩京諸州各置大雲寺一所，藏《大雲經》，命僧人講解，並提升佛教的地位在道教之上。是年九月侍御史傅游藝率關中百姓九百人上表，請改國號為周，賜皇帝姓武。於是百官及帝室宗戚、百姓、四夷酋長、沙門、道士共六萬餘人，亦上表請改國號。武后准所請，改唐為周。在神都則天門登基即位，改元天授，加尊號聖神皇帝，以睿宗為皇嗣，賜姓武氏，以皇太子為皇孫。立武氏祖宗七廟於神都洛陽，追尊周文王廟號曰始祖，諡號文皇帝。立武承嗣為魏王，武三思為梁王，其餘武氏多人為王及長公主。

同年九月，武則天派右鷹揚衛將軍王孝傑為武威軍總管，與武衛大將軍阿史那忠節率兵赴西域征討吐蕃。十月，唐軍大勝，連克于闐、疏勒、龜茲、碎葉等安西四鎮，仍置安西都護府於龜玆，發兵戍守。

長壽三年（694年）武三思率四夷首領請以銅鐵鑄天樞，立於端門外，以歌頌武則天的功德。武則天親題曰：「大周萬國頌德天樞」。天樞鑄造歷時八月而成，其形制若柱，高一百零五尺，直徑十二尺，八面，每面各五尺，下為鐵山，周一百七十尺，以銅為蟠龍、麒麟環繞之；上為騰雲承露盤直徑三丈，盤上四龍直立捧火珠，高一丈。工人毛婆羅造模，武三思為文，刻百官及四夷首領之名於其上。用銅鐵二百萬斤，「請胡聚錢百萬億，買銅鐵不能足，賦民間農器以足之。」

萬歲通天元年（696年）五月，契丹首領李盡忠和孫萬榮率兵起義，攻陷營州，殺都督趙文翽。武則天派將軍曹仁、張玄遇、李多祚等率兵征討。由於伏兵，全軍覆沒。接著，武則天再派武攸宜、王孝傑等率兵討伐，均大敗而歸。神功元年（697年）四月，武則天又派武懿宗、婁師德、沙吒忠義率兵二十萬，討伐契丹。六月，孫萬榮兵敗被殺，契丹餘眾歸降於突厥。

神功元年（697年）武則天使武懿宗審訊劉思禮謀反事，武懿宗說只要劉思禮指出哪些朝士有分謀反，就免其死罪，於是劉思禮誣告宰相李元素、孫元亨等三十六家「海內名士」，皆遭滅族，親舊連坐流竄者千餘人。時人以為武懿宗之殘暴僅次於周興、來俊臣。

是年，來俊臣欲羅告武氏諸王及太平公主（中宗之妹，武則天唯一長大成人的親生女兒），又欲誣皇嗣李旦及廬陵王李顯與南北衙共同謀反，擬一網打盡。武氏諸王與太平公主都十分害怕，共同揭發其罪行，下獄處以極刑。仇家爭食其肉，不一會就食盡。來俊臣兇狡貪暴網羅無辜，織成反狀，殺人不可勝計。「贓賄如山，冤魂塞路」，武則天亦知天下憤怨，下令數他的罪狀，並沒收其家財。

聖歷元年（698年）武承嗣、武三思謀求當太子，幾次使人對武則天說：「自古天子未有以異姓為嗣者。」武則天猶豫未決，狄仁傑對武后說：「姑侄之與母子，哪個比較親近？（武承嗣、武三思皆武后之侄，中宗、睿宗則武后之子）陛下立子，則千秋萬歲後，祭祖於太廟；立侄則未聞侄為天子祭姑於太廟者」。又勸武則天召還廬陵王（中宗）。武后由是無立武承嗣、武三思之意。乃召廬陵王還東都，皇嗣（睿宗）請遜位於廬陵王，武后立廬陵王為皇太子，命為元帥，狄仁傑為副元帥率兵擊突厥。武則天信重狄仁傑，常謂之「國老」而不呼其名。狄仁傑好諍諫，武則天每屈意從之。狄仁傑死後，武則天泣曰：「朝堂空矣！」常嘆：「天奪吾國老何太早邪！」

武則天晚年張易之、張昌宗兄弟迅速崛起，成為武則天的新寵，張易之、張昌宗兄弟年少美姿容，入侍武則天。二人常傅朱粉、穿著華麗的衣服。武承嗣、武三思等都爭著追捧他們，甚至為他們執鞭牽馬。

中宗長子邵王李重潤（中宗第二次為太子時封為邵王）與其妹永泰郡主及郡主婿武延基竊議張易之兄弟「何得任意入宮」，易之投訴於武則天，武則天敕李重潤、永泰郡主、武延基皆賜死。

神龍政變

神龍元年（705年）正月，武則天病篤，臥床不起，只有寵臣張易之、張昌宗兄弟侍側。宰相張柬之、崔玄暐與大臣敬暉、桓彥範、袁恕己等，交結禁軍統領李多祚，佯稱張易之、張昌宗兄弟謀反，於是發動兵變，率禁軍五百餘人，衝入宮中，殺死二張兄弟，隨即包圍武則天寢宮，要求武則天退位，史稱「神龍政變」。

武氏被迫禪讓帝位予兒子李顯，是為唐中宗，遷居上陽宮。中宗上尊號為「則天大聖皇帝」。

神龍元年十一月十六日（705年12月16日），武曌崩逝於洛陽上陽宮仙居殿內，享壽八十一歲。遺制去帝號，稱「則天大聖皇后」。神龍二年（706年）五月，武則天與唐高宗李治合葬於唐乾陵，留無字碑。

評價

蓋棺無字碑

歷代對武則天有各種不同的評價。唐代前期，由于所有的皇帝都是她的直系子孫，所以當時對武則天的評價相對比較寬容，但唐國史通過對後宮嬪妃與諸王公主的描敘淒慘地予以了無情揭露。隨著時間的推移，特別是司馬光所主編之《資治通鑑》，對武氏進行嚴正批判。到了南宋期間，程朱理學在中國思想上占據了主導地位，輿論決定了對武則天的長久評價。譬如明末清初的時候，著名的思想家王夫之，就曾評價武則天「鬼神之所不容，臣民之所共怨」。惟不可否認的是，武后重視延攬，首創鉗制文網式的考試，而且知人善任，能重用狄仁傑、張柬之、桓彥範、敬暉、姚崇等中興名臣。國家在武則天主政期間，文化承貞觀之模、百姓尚稱富庶。故享「貞觀遺風」之譽，亦及于其孫唐玄宗（其母死於武后手）的開元盛世。

武則天的形象源于歷史，唐宋時的正史對武則天的家世出身、宮廷生活及掌權執政等狀況都有詳細的記載。從總體上看，武則天的形象可以分為四個發展階段。唐五代是發軔期，顯示出「本色化」的特點；宋元是沿承期，武則天被「異族化」；明代是轉折期，武則天被「艷情化」；清代為繁榮期，出現了兩種截然相反的傾向，一種是被「妖魔化」，另一種則是被「理想化」。這與當時的時代特點緊密相關。

一家言

武則天對歷史發展做出的第一個貢獻是，她打擊了保守的門閥世族。武則天被立為皇后以後，把反對她做皇后的長孫無忌、褚遂良等人一個一個的都趕出了朝廷，貶逐到邊遠地區。這對于武則天來說，是殺雞儆猴，但這些關隴集團和他們的依附者，在當時已經成為一種既得利益的保守力量。把他們趕出政治舞台標誌著關隴集團從北周以來長達一個多世紀統治的終結，也為社會進步和經濟發展創造了一個良好的條件。

第二是促進了經濟的發展。武則天在建言十二事中就建議「勸農桑，薄賦役」。在她掌權以後，又編撰了《兆人本業記》頒發到州縣，作為州縣官勸農的參考。她還注意地方吏治，加強對地主官吏的監察。對于土地兼併和逃亡的農民，也採取比較寛容的政策。因此，武則天統治時期，社會是相當安定的，農業、手工業和商業都有了長足的發展，戶口也由唐高宗永徽三年（652年）的380萬戶增加到唐中宗神龍元年（705年）的615萬戶，平均每年增長0.721%。這在中古時代，是一個很高的增長率，也是反映武則天時期經濟發展的客觀數據。

第三個貢獻是推動了文化的發展。唐人沈既濟在談及科舉制度時說到：「太后頗涉文史，好雕蟲之藝。」「太后君臨天下二十餘年，當時公卿百闢，無不以文章達，因循日久，浸已成風」。一是當時進士科和制科考試主要都是考策問，也就是申論。文章的好壞是錄取的主要標準。二是武則天用人不看門第，不問是否為高級官吏的子孫，而是看有否政治才能。因此特別注意從科舉出身者中選拔高級官吏。科舉出身做到高級官吏的越來越多。這就大大刺激了仕人參加科舉的積極性，更刺激了一般人讀書學習的熱情。這就是沈既濟所說的「浸已成風」。開元、天寶年間「父教其子，兄教其弟」，「五尺童子恥不言文墨焉」的社會風氣，就是從武則天時期開始的。正是文化的普及，推動了文化的全面發展。著名的詩人和文學家崔融、李喬都是這個時期湧現出來的。雕塑、繪畫也達到了前所未有的水平。

個人缺失

另外武則天也有不少負面評價，岑仲勉說，「武后任事率性，好惡無定，終其臨朝之日，計曾任宰相七十三人」。其主政初期，由於大興告密之風，重用酷吏周興、來俊臣等，加上後世史學家不齒於她違反傳統的禮教，身為女子，竟然擁有不少男性嬪妃（稱為「男寵」）。但趙翼為武則天的私生活辯護，說：「人主富有四海，妃嬪動千百，后既為女王，而所寵幸不過數人，固亦未足深怪，故后初不以為諱，而且不必諱也。」

武則天統治的缺失主要是丟失安北領土，她將大部份的精力用於對內，因此對外軍事，屢有失策。首先在686年一度丟棄了安西四鎮，在692年才派王孝傑收復; 696年任用郭元振使反間計令吐蕃內亂，除掉吐蕃名將論欽陵，削弱吐蕃實力。另外又在696年激起孫萬榮、李盡忠的叛亂，使武周期間契丹一度落入突厥人手中。安北都護府在高宗死時尚處在中國統治，而濫殺程務挺、棄用王方翼等名將更使東突厥復國; 但在她執政後期已大致平復邊疆對外用兵的不利局面，並留下後代一個國力尚強的唐朝。然而，唐太宗和唐高宗辛苦經營的安北領土始終沒有再收復過，使唐朝曾經過千萬平方公里的江山永遠丟失了五分之二，即使是唐玄宗開元盛世也沒有恢復安北任何領土，而是被回紇取代。

絮語

• 《舊唐書》：「治亂，時也，存亡，勢也。使桀、紂在上，雖十堯不能治；使堯、舜在上，雖十桀不能亂；使懦夫女子乘時得勢，亦足坐制群生之命，肆行不義之威。觀夫武氏稱制之年，英才接軫，靡不痛心于家索，扼腕于朝危，竟不能報先帝之恩，衛吾君之子。俄至無辜被陷，引頸就誅，天地為籠，去將安所？初雖牝雞司晨，終能複子明闢，飛語辯元忠之罪，善言慰仁傑之心，尊時憲而抑幸臣，聽忠言而誅酷吏。有旨哉，有旨哉！」贊曰：「龍漦易貌，丙殿昌儲。胡為穹昊，生此夔魖？奪攘神器，穢褻皇居。窮妖白首，降鑒何如。」

• 《新唐書》：「昔者孔子作《春秋》而亂臣賊子懼，其于殺君篡國之主，皆不黜絕之，豈以其盜而有之者，莫大之罪也，不沒其實，所以著其大惡而不隱歟？自司馬遷、班固皆作《高后紀》，呂氏雖非篡漢，而盜執其國政，遂不敢沒其實，豈其得聖人之意歟？抑亦偶合于《春秋》之法也。唐之舊史因之，列武后于本紀，蓋其所從來遠矣。夫吉凶之于人，猶影響也，而為善者得吉常多，其不幸而罹于凶者有矣；為惡者未始不及于凶，其幸而免者亦時有焉。而小人之慮，遂以為天道難知，為善未必福，而為惡未必禍也。武后之惡，不及于大戮，所謂倖免者也。至中宗韋氏，則禍不旋踵矣。然其親遭母后之難，而躬自蹈之，所謂下愚之不移者歟！」

• 沈既濟：「太后頗涉文史，好雕蟲之藝。」「太后君臨天下二十餘年，當時公卿百闢，無不以文章達，因循日久，浸已成風。」

• 崔融：「英才遠略，鴻業大勛。雷霆其武，日月其文。灑以甘露，覆之慶雲。制禮作樂，還淳返樸。宗禮明堂，崇儒太學。四海慕化，九夷稟朔。沈璧大河，泥金中嶽。巍乎成功，翕然向風。」

• 魯宗道：「唐之罪人也，幾危社稷。」

• 洪邁《容齋隨筆》：「漢之武帝、唐之武后，不可謂不明」。

• 司馬光：「雖濫以祿位收天下人心， 然不稱職責，尋亦黜之，或加刑誅，挾刑賞之柄以駕御天下，政由己出，明察善斷，故當時英賢亦競為之。」

• 趙翼：「女中英主。」「人主富有四海，妃嬪動千百，後既為女王，而所寵幸不過數人，固亦未足深怪，故後初不以為諱，而且不必諱也。」

• 翟藹：「武氏以一婦人君臨天下二十餘年，是不比於母后之稱制者，而直自帝自王也，此其智有過人者。」

• 岑仲勉：「武后任事率性，好惡無定，終其臨朝之日，計曾任宰相七十三人。」

• 郭沫若：「政啟開元，治宏貞觀；芳流劍閣，光被利州。」

• 宋慶齡：「武則天是封建時代傑出的女政治家。但就家庭角色而言，不難看出武則天也是個好妻子。」

• 毛澤東：「武則天確實是個治國之才，她既有容人之量，又有識人之智，還有用人之術。她提拔過不少人，也殺了不少人。剛剛提拔又殺了的也不少。」

• 翦伯贊：「武則天的打擊門閥貴族和提拔普通地主做官的政策，是符合當時社會發展趨勢的，因此她的作用是積極的……武則天在鞏固封建國家的邊疆方面，也做了不少工作。」

• 江青對武則天的評價很高，認為武則天是中國婦女中最傑出的人物。

諡號

雖然唐室依照她的遺詔諡號，後來仍有數次修改:

• 殤帝唐隆元年（710年），改為天后。

• 睿宗景雲元年（710年），加諡大聖天后。

• 延和元年（712年），改為天后聖帝，未幾，改為聖后。

• 玄宗開元四年（716年），改為則天皇后。

• 天寶八載（749年），加諡則天順聖皇后。

家人

丈夫

• 唐太宗（封為才人）

• 唐高宗（封為才人、昭儀、宸妃、皇后）

子

• 孝敬皇帝李弘（652年－675年）

• 章懷太子李賢（654年－684年）

• 唐中宗李顯（舊名李哲）（656年11月26日－710年7月3日）

• 唐睿宗李旦（舊名李旭輪）（662年6月22日－716年7月13日）

女

• 安定公主

• 太平公主

• 千金公主：千金公主為唐高祖之女，於武則天大殺唐朝宗室時為求自保，自請降為武則天義女，武則天改封其為安定公主。

孫

• 唐玄宗李隆基（又稱唐明皇）

孫媳婦

• 王皇后 王氏

雜錄

• 相傳唐太宗在世時，曾請天文師算命，天文師認為，不出三十年，李氏皆亡於一個姓武的人手裡了。於是太宗屠殺武氏朝臣，沒想到篡位者竟是他身邊的武才人。

• 相傳在感業寺時期，李治有次前往祭拜，看到武氏後便魂不守舍。當時，與蕭淑妃爭寵的王皇后，便趁此納武氏為自己派系，跟蕭淑妃對抗，沒想到兩人皆亡於武氏之手。武自排除蕭妃後竟始怕貓，怕貓被蕭妃魂魄附身。

• 武則天稱帝後，亦有多名男寵，此段為妄說。其中最出名者乃馮小寶（薛懷義），武則天後派他在洛陽東的白馬寺出家，法名懷義，但仍與武則天私通。某年盂蘭盆節，當時已經逐漸失寵的懷義，為討武則天注意，火燒明堂，火勢蔓延整個洛陽。

• 武則天為了誇飾武周革命，創造了則天文字。部分的則天文字還傳到日本、韓國，甚至成為某些日本禮遇中國文化人的人名用字。

• 武則天著有《垂拱集》百卷，《金輪集》十卷，已散佚。今存詩四十六首，《全唐文》編其文為四卷。有《石榴裙》之思。

• 武則天稱帝前掌握實權的6年，使用了3個年號，稱帝的15年使用了16個年號，合19個年號，是中國皇帝中用年號最多和密度最高的皇帝。居於第二的是西晉皇帝晉惠帝司馬衷，除了時間最長的元康年號（9年），9年間用了8個年號。

• 武則天為佛經「開經偈」的撰寫者。"無上甚深微妙法，百千萬劫難遭遇，我今見聞得受持，願解如來真實義"。武則天是真正的大修行人，做此偈時感得天女散花，流傳迄今。很多評論均是不符合事實的妄說，因不符合統治者利益和倫理習俗之故。但武則天問心無愧，立無字碑任憑人解讀。

相關作品與大眾文化

電視劇／電影／戲劇/

• 天子尋龍

• 大明宮詞

• 武則天 (影視作品)

• 武媚娘傳奇

• 一代女皇

• 武則天秘史

• 美人製造

• 通天神探狄仁傑

• 狄仁傑之神都龍王

• 風起霓裳

遊戲

• Fate/Grand Order

　• 配音：井澤詩織。作為4星Assassin出場。寶具是B級對人寶具「告密羅織經」。

• 王者榮耀

　• 配音：周帥

注釋