Family background and early life

Shi Xie was in the sixth generation from his ancestors who migrated to northern Vietnam, born in Jiao Province, but his ancestral home was around present-day Tai'an, Shandong. His ancestors moved to Jiao Province when Wang Mang usurped the throne and established the Xin dynasty (9–23) with himself as its emperor. Shi Xie's father, Shi Ci (士賜), served as the Administrator of Rinan Commandery (日南郡) during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han dynasty. The Shi family was one of the elite families of Han Chinese origin who later emigrated to present-day Vietnam and played a major role in developing Vietnamese civilisation.

In his youth, Shi Xie studied the Zuo Zhuan under the tutelage of one Liu Tao (劉陶) from Yingchuan Commandery (潁川郡). Later, he was nominated as a xiaolian (civil service candidate) and served in the Han central government as a Gentleman of Writing (尚書郎) but was later dismissed because of "official reasons". After his father's death, he was nominated as a maocai (茂才) and was appointed as the Prefect of Wu County (巫縣; present-day Wushan County, Chongqing). In 187, the Han central government reassigned him to be the Administrator (太守) of Jiaozhi Commandery (交趾郡) in Jiao Province.

As a warlord in Jiao Province

Around the time, Zhu Fu (朱符) had been appointed by the Han government to serve as the Inspector of Jiao Province. However, the locals in Jiao Province rebelled and killed him after he attempted to extract heavier taxes from them. The Han government then sent Zhang Jin (張津) to replace him, but Zhang Jin was later murdered by his subordinate Ou Jing (區景). When Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province, heard about this, he appointed Lai Gong (賴恭) as the new Inspector of Jiao Province without authorisation from the Han central government. At the same time, he also sent his subordinate Wu Ju (吳巨) to replace the deceased Shi Huang (史璜) as the Administrator of Cangwu Commandery (蒼梧郡). To counter Liu Biao's attempts to extend his influence into Jiao Province, the Han central government issued an imperial decree appointing Shi Xie as General of the Household Who Pacifies the South (綏南中郎將) and putting him in charge of the seven commanderies in Jiao Province.

After Shi Xie sent his subordinate Zhang Min (張旻) to thank the Han central government and pay tribute, the Han central government further promoted him to General Who Stabilises Distant Lands (安遠將軍), in addition to enfeoffing him as the Marquis of Longdu Village (龍度亭侯). Around the time, the Han Empire was in a state of chaos, as various warlords fought for power and territories in northern and central China. Jiao Province, being a remote province in southern China, was not caught up in the chaos. Shi Xie was effectively a warlord in control of Jiao Province even though he was still a nominal subject of the Han Empire. Shi Xie's younger brothers also held important positions in Jiao Province: Shi Yi (士壹), Shi Hui (士䵋) and Shi Wu (士武) were respectively the Administrators of Hepu (合浦), Jiuzhen (九真) and Nanhai (南海) commanderies in Jiao Province.

In 210, Wu Ju got into conflict with Lai Gong and forced him out of Jiao Province. Sun Quan, the warlord who controlled the territories in the Jiangdong region bordering Jiao Province, appointed his subordinate Bu Zhi as the Inspector of Jiao Province to replace Lai Gong. Shi Xie led his followers to submit to Bu Zhi's governorship, but Wu Ju refused and secretly plotted to assassinate Bu Zhi. However, Bu Zhi sensed Wu Ju's intentions and managed to outwit and kill him. Sun Quan later appointed Shi Xie as General of the Left (左將軍) to honour him. At the same time, the warlord Cao Cao, who controlled the Han central government, wanted to gain Shi Xie's support as an ally against Sun Quan, so he conferred the nine bestowments and other honours on Shi Xie in the name of Emperor Xian (the figurehead Han emperor under Cao Cao's control).

As a vassal of Eastern Wu

In the years after the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty in 220, Sun Quan declared himself king and established the kingdom (later empire) of Eastern Wu. Shi Xie pledged loyalty to Sun Quan and sent one of his sons, Shi Xin (士廞), as a hostage to Sun Quan to ensure his allegiance towards Wu. He also regularly sent tribute to Sun Quan. During the conflict between Wu and its ally-turned-rival state Shu Han, Shi Xie sided with Wu and instigated Yong Kai (雍闓), a local tribal chief in Shu territory, to rebel against Shu rule and defect to Wu. In recognition of Shi Xie's efforts in inducing Yong Kai to defect, Sun Quan appointed Shi Xie as General of the Guards (衛將軍) and awarded him the title "Marquis of Longbian" (龍編侯). Shi Xie died of illness in 226 around the age of 89.

Family

Shi Xie had at least five sons (in decreasing order of seniority): Shi Xin (士廞), Shi Zhi (士祗), Shi Hui (士徽), Shi Gan (士幹) and Shi Song (士頌).

After Shi Xie died in 226, his third son Shi Hui succeeded him as the Administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery (交趾郡) under the Eastern Wu regime. Around the time, the Wu emperor Sun Quan wanted to split Jiao Province and create another province, Guang Province (廣州): Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen (九真) and Rinan (日南) commanderies would remain part of Jiao Province; Cangwu (蒼梧), Nanhai (南海), Yulin (鬱林) and Hepu (合浦) commanderies would form the new Guang Province. Sun Quan then appointed Dai Liang (戴良) and Lü Dai as the Inspectors of Jiao and Guang provinces respectively. Chen Shi (陳時), a close aide of Sun Quan, was to replace Shi Hui as the Administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery.

In 227, when Shi Hui learnt about the new arrangements, he refused to comply and rebelled against Wu rule by sending his troops to block Dai Liang and Chen Shi from entering Jiao Province. At the time, Huan Lin (桓鄰), one of Shi Hui's subordinates, begged his superior to obey the order and surrender his governorship of Jiaozhi Commandery to Chen Shi. However, Shi Hui refused and had Huan Lin flogged to death. Huan Lin's nephew, Huan Fa (桓發), started a mutiny against Shi Hui and engaged him in a battle that lasted a few months. They made peace after that.

In the meantime, after learning of Shi Hui's rebellion, Sun Quan ordered Lü Dai, the Inspector of Guang Province, to lead troops to recapture Jiaozhi Commandery. Lü Dai, who was close to Shi Hui's cousin Shi Kuang (士匡; a son of Shi Xie's brother Shi Yi 士壹), sent Shi Kuang to persuade Shi Hui to surrender by promising that he would be spared if he did so. Shi Hui and his brothers then opened the gates of Jiaozhi Commandery and surrendered to Lü Dai. The following day, Lü Dai lured the Shi brothers into a trap during a banquet, had them arrested and then read out a list of Shi Hui's crimes. He then executed all of them and sent their heads to Sun Quan, who was in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei) at the time.

Shi Xie's brothers, Shi Yi (士壹) and Shi Hui (士䵋), along with their families, were spared from death but reduced to the status of commoners. Some years later, Shi Yi and Shi Hui were executed for committing crimes.

Earlier in the 220s, Shi Xie had sent his eldest son, Shi Xin (士廞), as a hostage to Sun Quan to ensure the Wu emperor of his allegiance towards him. Shi Xin thus avoided ending up like Shi Hui and his other brothers, who were executed by Lü Dai in 227. Like the rest of the Shi family who survived (e.g. his uncles Shi Yi and Shi Hui 士䵋), he was reduced to the status of a commoner after his brothers' deaths. He died of illness some time later and had no son to succeed him.

Worship of "King Sĩ", Sĩ Tiếp in Vietnam

Shi Xie ruled Vietnam as an autonomous warlord for forty years and was posthumously deified by later Vietnamese monarchs. In the words of Stephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was essentially "the first Vietnamese." According to Holmgren, Shi Xie's rule "is one of the milestones in the development and fusion of two new social groups in Tongking - a sinicised Vietnamese group and a vietnamised Chinese group. The latter gradually came to identify with the interests of the delta rather than with the Chinese empire". Taylor (1983) also believed his imperial appointments gave formal legitimacy to "the emergence of a regional ruling class with strong ties to the local society". It is apparent from events following his death that he "presided over an aberrant regional power arrangement based on great Han-Viet families that could field private armies". From the Chinese's view, Shi Xie stood as a "frontier guardian"; from the Vietnamese side, he was the head of a regional ruling-class society. It was relatively easy for people to shift back and forth between these two perspectives. Thus, the man of Chinese or mixed ancestry playing a mixed role or, in some cases, an unambiguous Vietnamese role is a common figure in early Vietnamese history. "He was the first of many such people to emerge as strong regional leaders who nurtured the local society in the context of Chinese civilization". The people who emerged as Vietnamese leaders during this time were of mixed ancestry: most of their families had already been in Vietnam for several generations; they undoubtedly spoke Vietnamese; and their political outlook was based on the regional interests of Vietnamese society.

Shi Xie is still honoured in some Vietnamese temples today as "King Si". The Vietnamese history Việt Điện U Linh Tập (越甸幽靈集; 1400) adds significantly to the traditions of the Chinese records with local Vietnamese traditions.

生涯

家世及早年生活

士燮於東漢末年出生於交州廣信（今廣西壯族自治區梧州市），其先祖為山東汶陽人，因避新莽末年大亂移到交州，傳六世至其父士賜。士氏是為當地豪族，士燮的父親士賜曾於漢桓帝時期出任日南太守一職。士燮年少時隨潁川人劉陶學習《左氏春秋》，後被舉為孝廉，補尚書郎，因「公事免官」。其父士賜死後，士燮被舉茂才，任巫縣令一職。187年，士燮被漢朝任命為交趾太守。

董督交州

當時的交州刺史朱符向各地收重稅，引起反抗被殺，漢朝派遣張津為新任刺史。但張津卻「舍前聖典訓，廢漢家法律，嘗著絳帕頭，鼓琴燒香，讀邪俗道書，雲以助化」，不久即為部將區景殺死。荊州牧劉表得知此事後，自行任命賴恭為交州刺史以接替了張津的位置；同時亦派吳巨出任蒼梧太守，接替已病死的原太守史璜。為避免劉表的勢力過於強大，漢廷下詔任命士燮為「綏南中郎將」，董督交阯七郡。士燮旅即派張旻前去朝廷謝恩進貢，於是漢廷又改拜士燮為「安遠將軍」，封「龍度亭侯」。而此時漢朝已先後經歷了黃巾之亂、十常侍之亂，以及軍閥割據混戰的時期，對交州的影響力大為減弱。士燮名義上是效忠於漢朝的交趾太守，實際上已成為割據嶺南各郡的軍閥。士氏的親族多出任交州的要職，如士燮的三個弟弟士壹、士䵋、士武，分別擔任合浦太守、九真太守和南海太守。

優遊終世

210年（建安十五年），蒼梧太守吳巨與交州牧賴恭發生衝突，賴恭被吳巨驅逐出境。其後孫權派遣步騭為交州刺史，士燮「率兄弟奉承節度」。而吳巨卻「懷異心」，被步騭斬殺。此後，士燮被孫權封為左將軍。丞相曹操亦有心籠絡士燮，以朝廷名義加士燮「九錫、六佾之舞」。

漢朝滅亡、東吳建立後，士燮將兒子士廞送至吳國為人質，並每年貢獻當地寶物以維持其政權。同時，士燮在東吳和蜀漢的衝突中支持東吳，誘導益州的豪族雍闓叛蜀附吳，被孫權封為衛將軍、龍編侯。

226年，士燮病逝，年90歲。吳國企圖立廣州及交州兩郡，分別以呂岱和戴良為刺史。陳時代替士徽為交趾太守。士徽不服從，孫權下令命呂岱誅殺。最終為呂岱以赦免罪行為由欺騙出城並將一族討伐。過了幾年之後，士壹和士䵋也因犯法伏誅。士廞因病身亡，沒有留下子嗣，士燮一支因此絕後。

評價

• 與士燮同時代的袁徽在給尚書令荀彧的書信中寫道：「交阯士府君，既學問優博，又達於從政。處大亂之中，保全一郡二十餘年，疆場無事，民不失業。羈旅之徒皆蒙其慶。雖竇融保河西，曷以加之？官事少闋，輒玩習書傳。《春秋左氏傳》尤簡練精微，吾數以咨問《傳》中諸疑，皆有師說，意思甚密。又《尚書》兼通古今，大義詳備。聞京師古今之學，是非忿爭，今欲條《左氏》、《尚書》長義上之。」

• 陳壽在《三國志·士燮傳》中如此評論士燮：「士燮作守南越，優遊終世，至子不慎，自貽兇咎。蓋庸才玩富貴而恃阻險，使之然也。」

• 越南史官吳士連評論道：「我國通詩書，習禮樂，為文獻之邦，自士王始。其功德，豈特施於當時，而有以遠及於後代，豈不盛矣哉！子之不肖，乃子之罪爾。」

• 越南嗣德帝：「士燮特一漢守耳，隨辰柔媚，只求自便，全無雄才遠略，以致再傳已敗，無足稱也。舊史謂雖尉佗不能逾，毋乃過乎？」

無論如何，士燮統治交州40年期間，致力於調和在地居民與外來移民，在東漢末年中原大亂時，交州在他的統治下，成為相對而言和平安定的地區，使許多中原人士移入當地，對於漢人中原文化傳入交州（今天的廣東、廣西及越南北部）有很大的助益。遺憾的是，在士燮死後，吳國貶謫其子士徽，而士徽不願從命。為征討他，呂岱在交趾對吏民大開殺戮，在九真就「斬獲以萬數」，給當地帶來巨大破壞。至于其後代家族的悲慘下場，雖正史評價是因為士徽自己庸才托大所致，也有人（如孫盛）認為孫權及呂岱等人太過集權專制而心狠手辣所為，做法對士家是不公平的。

後世越南人對他的追崇

由於士氏政權曾統治部分越南領土，因此一些越南史家亦把士燮當作越南君主，稱士燮為「士王」（Sĩ Vương）、「南交學祖」。士燮在越南甚得後世人士的尊崇。

士燮執政開明，他保護整個地區二十年不受戰亂的影響，人民生活幸福。同時他作為儒學家，重視儒學研究，推廣儒學的傳播，興辦教育、移風易俗來促進越南的文化發展。與前來交州避難的漢朝學者劉熙、薛綜等人交談儒學，著書立傳，促進儒學文化在當地興旺發達，開創嶺南文化史上的黃金時代。士燮將中國的儒家文化傳入越南，使得儒教能夠得以在越南傳播。

越南史學家吳士連這樣評論士燮在越南的教育貢獻：「我國通詩書，習禮樂，為文獻之邦，自士王始。其功德豈特施與當時，而有以遠及與後代，豈不盛矣哉。」同時越南《四字經》說：「三國吳時，士王為牧，教以詩書，薰陶美俗。」

越南民間相傳在晉朝末年林邑國侵犯交州時，林邑人曾發掘過士燮的墳墓，見其面色如生，大為驚駭，重新封上了他的墳墓。越南人因此以之為神，立廟事之，號「士王僊」。在陳朝時期，他被追封為善感嘉應靈武大王（Thiên Cảm Gia Ứng Linh Vũ Đại Vương）。（陳重興元年（1285年），朝廷封為「嘉應大王」；重興四年（1290年），加「善感」二字；興隆二十一年（1313年），加「靈武」二字。）

族人、部署與治下士人

父

• 士賜，六世之前從山東遷居交州廣信（今廣西蒼梧縣），士賜於漢桓帝時期出任日南郡太守。士賜死後，士燮被舉茂才。

弟弟

• 士壹，有子士匡

• 士䵋

• 士武，任南海郡（今廣東省廣州市）太守，先士燮死。

子

• 士廞

• 士祗（？—226年），士燮之子，士徽、士幹、士頌之兄。因與士徽一起拒絕陳時、戴良赴交趾任官，為呂岱所斬，連弟弟士幹、士頌一同被害。

• 士徽

• 士幹（？—226年）

• 士頌（？—226年）

部屬

• 交趾桓家

　• 桓邵

　• 桓曄

　• 桓治，大將，與甘醴反擊呂岱但失敗。

　• 桓發，桓治子

　• 桓鄰，桓治弟，士燮推舉的官吏，因勸諫士徽慘遭殺害。

• 其他

　• 張旻，士燮派他前去朝廷謝恩進貢。

　• 程秉，孫吳重臣，曾任士燮長史。

　• 許靖

　• 劉熙

　• 甘醴

　• 儋萌，九真太守

　　• 周京

　　• 番歆

　　• 番苗

治下名士

• 張巴

• 袁忠

• 袁徽

• 袁沛

• 薛綜

• 許慈

• 鄧子孝

• 徐元賢

• 牟融

• 康僧會

腳註